Deviant Behavior 3

Sex vs gender vs sexuality

Sex:

• A biological category system based on body variations
(e.g., genitalia, chromosomes). Associated concepts:
male; female; intersex

Gender:

• A social category system based on cultural ideas about
masculinity and femininity. Associated concepts:
gender identity; gender expression; gender binary;
cisgender; transgender

Sexuality:
A social category system based on erotic desires,
behavior, and identity. Associated concepts:
heterosexuality, homosexuality, bisexuality, asexuality;
LGBTQIA+

Core cultural beliefs about core cultural beliefs

• There are two genders and only two.
• People should use appropriate symbols (clothes,
hair, makeup, demeanor) to convey to others
which gender they are…
• We need to know people’s genders to determine
how to understand others and respond
appropriately.
• Gender stems from biological sex, which is also
dichotomous (male & female).
• And people’s sexual orientation stems from their
sex. Sex → Gender → Sexuality

Reality about sex, gender, and sexuality

Reality is that sex, gender, and sexuality exist more on a spectrum than in dichotomies.

Given the reality of people’s bodies, feelings,
expressions, identities, and behavior in contrast
to the ways that society classifies people into
dichotomies, it is most useful to see those
common categories as

socially constructed.

What does “socially constructed” mean?

Social construct

An idea that people in a society create

and accept. It has no meaning on its own,

only the meaning we give it.

Three things a social construct is NOT

1. Not fake

Constructs have real consequences

for people's lives, safety, and

opportunities.

2. Not fixed

Meanings shift across time and

place.

3. Not individual

You cannot opt out alone. Others

hold you to the shared definitions.

Defining “Gender”

• Gender is a social and cultural classification system.
• Gender includes social identities, roles, attitudes,
appearances, demeanors, and other behaviors that are
conceptualized as “masculine” or “feminine.”
• Cultural expectations are that biological males are to
embody masculine traits, and biological females are to be
“feminine.”
 Socialization includes socialization into ideas about
gender (“gender socialization”).
 By the age of 3 or 4, children identify as being a
particular gender (“gender identity”)
 Norms of gender shape interaction and socialization
in families, schools, media, religion, and more.

Gender Ideology

Femininity

 COLORS/TEXTURES (Pink, pastel, sparkly, glittery, shiny)

 DEMEANOR (smiling, looking down or away, off-balance posture, “little girl”

gestures, effort to be small/take up little space)

Masculinity
 COLORS/TEXTURES (Blue, primary
colors, matte, untextured or rough)
 DEMEANOR (neutral face, directly
looking at camera, sturdy pose,
effort to take up space, minimal
gesturing)

Cahill: Socialization as Recruitment

Cahill’s main point:

Societies run smoothly only when members

follow shared rules without being forced to.

Through socialization, kids are recruited into

society and social norms to the point that they

monitor and police themselves (and others).

Learning gender recruits them into doing

gender themselves, as self-regulating

participants.

Why gender? Cahill uses gender development

as his case because sex identification is relevant

to almost every interaction we have

Five stages of recruitment according to Cahill

1. Acquiescent (Infancy): Others assign meaning to the baby

2. Unwitting (Around age 1): Baby acts out those meanings without knowing

3. Exploratory (Preschool): Kids try on identities through play

4. Apprentice (Preadolescence): Kids practice gender in same-sex peer groups

5. Bona fide (Adolescence): Teens prove they can reproduce the system

Five stages of recruitment -Cahill

Stages 1 and 2: Unwitting

Meaning Comes Before Behavior

Within 24 hours of birth

Parents described daughters as soft and sons as strong

and hardy, even though the babies' weight, length, and

health scores were nearly identical (Rubin et al., 1974).

The "Baby X" studies

Adults responded to whatever sex label researchers gave

the baby, not its actual anatomy. With no label, most

guessed the sex wrong.

By 13 months

Girls stayed closer to mothers; boys pushed past barriers.

Change the setup and the differences disappeared. The

environment, not an inner nature, drove them.

"Behavioral sex differences, like beauty, might exist primarily in the eyes of the beholder."

Birns (1976), quoted in Cahill

The loop: Adults treat babies differently, babies respond, and adults read the response

as proof of a natural difference.

Five Stages of Recruitment -Cahill

Stage 3: Exploratory

Exploring, and Getting Corrected

Through dress-up and pretend play,

preschoolers learn that clothes and props

announce who you are, and that your

behavior has to match.

They also learn they can't claim just any

identity. Adults offer two choices: "big boy"

or "big girl" (approved) versus "baby"

(discrediting). Kids pick the sex identity to be

seen as a real person.

By age 4 or 5, they police themselves, even

when adults tell them they don't have to.

Stages 4 and 5: Apprentice and Bona fide

Practice, Then Proof

Apprentice:
preadolescence
• Kids escape adult control in same-sex friendship groups
• Boys' groups lean competitive and rule-based; girls' lean cooperative and intimate (Lever)
• Constant rehearsal makes gender habitual, until it feels "only natural"
Bona fide: adolescence
• Puberty triggers a test: Can you be
trusted as a full member?
• Teens show "heterosocial skill":
performing your own gender while
helping the other sex perform
theirs
• Early dating works largely as a
public demonstration of that skill

Socialization Is Social Control

Enforcement starts early

Peers police gender rules by age 3. Becker's rule enforcers don't have to be adults. ☺

Control moves inside

Once kids self-regulate, no one has to force them.

Berger's circles of control now run through the self.

"Natural" hides the work

Years of rehearsal make gender feel automatic, which makes violations look unnatural, not just unusual.

The system reproduces itself

Today's self-regulating adults automatically recruit the next generation of infants.

Defining “Sex”

• Sex is a biological classification system.
• People are classified based on physical
differences in their bodies
 Sexual anatomy (internal organs and
structures, external genitalia)
 Chromosomes (e.g., XX)
 Hormone levels
 Secondary sex characteristics
• Most typically, people are classified before or
at birth based on genitalia.

Variation in Sex

“Intersex” – an umbrella term that refers to natural,
nonbinary variations in human sex characteristic; up to
2% of people are born with intersex traits
• There are at least 30 different intersex variations
• Some variations are a result of chromosomal
variations; others have to do with how the body
responds to sex hormones
• Most commonly, the variations are not immediately
visible in a newborn.
Intersex conditions can be considered examples of
bodily “deviance” because they violate cultural
expectations of what is a “normal” body.

Intersex Variations: Some Examples

Chromosomal Variations

• XX – female

• XY – male

• XXY – Klinefelter’s syndrome (appear male

and often do not develop male pattern body

hair and testes)

• X – Turner syndrome – appear female, often

shorter than average, may be infertile

• Ovotestes – a person has both ovarian tissue

and testicular tissue due to chromosomal

variations; people can have different sex

organs and can have atypical puberty

Intersex Variations: Some Examples

Hormone-related Variations

• Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) – a

relatively common variant that causes differences

in hormone production, including cortisol,

androgens, etc.; can cause early appearance of

secondary sex characteristics; important to

monitor, especially cortisol; most common

endocrine condition impacting women (can be

misdiagnosed as PCOS); often have atypical

genitalia

• 5-Alpha Reductase Deficiency (5-ARD) – causes

changes in testosterone metabolism that can

produce variations in genitalia; may be noticed at

birth but often shows up at puberty.

How does society respond to intersex variations?

• In virtually all states, babies are classified at birth as either male or female.

• Historically, medical intervention to “normalize” the bodies of intersex people has been the

expected course of action. Medical advice was to not tell the child.

 Surgery on infant’s/toddler’s genitalia – began in the 1930s

 Hormone treatment

• In some cases, physical issues arise that need to be addressed (for ex., a uterus without an

opening that causes painful menstruation).

• In many cases, nothing is wrong and intervention is not medically indicated. Historically,

parents have been encouraged to have surgery for their child to make their genitalia appear

typical (e.g., clitoral reduction). Many have argued that this is for the comfort of parents,

doctors, daycare workers, etc. and not for the well-being of the child.

 Many intersex people in adulthood have objected to the medical intervention they

experienced as children and advocate for the importance of patient consent.

Today’s Reading: Kessler (1990), “The Medical Construction of

Gender: The Case Management of Intersexed Infants”

• What does she title the article “the medical

construction of gender”?

• “… members of medical teams have standard

practices for managing intersexuality that rely

ultimately on cultural understandings of gender”

(and I would add sexuality to that).

• The theory of gender that guides management of

intersexed infants is that gender is malleable – that

you have to assign it early based on, essentially, the

prospects for creating “normal” genitalia surgically

then socialize the child into one of two genders

accordingly.

Physicians Guiding Parents:

Four Aspects of the “Normalizing” Process according to Kessler (1990)

1. Discussion of fetal development and the fact that all fetuses have the potential to be male

or female.

2. State the normalcy of the infant other than sex.

3. Imply that the sex is ambiguous but there’s a “true gender” to be uncovered.

4. Emphasize that culture is more important than biology when it comes to gender. You just

have to have “the right social conditions to produce the ‘real’ gender” (17).

• Note that they do not emphasize the role of socialization in births where the sex is

obvious; in those cases, gender is assumed to be natural.

I am arguing that the _________________________ throughout

treatment permits physicians to handle very problematic cases of gender in the

most unproblematic of ways.

I am arguing that the peculiar balance of discovery and determination throughout

treatment permits physicians to handle very problematic cases of gender in the

most unproblematic of ways.

This balance relies fundamentally on a particular conception of the "natural.”

Although the deformity of intersexed genitals would be immutable were it not for

medical interference, physicians do not consider it natural. Instead they think of,

and speak of, the surgical/hormonal alteration of such deformities as natural

because such intervention returns the body to what it "ought to have been" if

events had taken their typical course. The nonnormative is converted into the

normative, and the normative state is considered natural. The genital ambiguity is

remedied to conform to a "natural," that is, culturally indisputable, gender

dichotomy.

… The belief that gender consists of two exclusive types is maintained and

perpetuated by the medical community in the face of incontrovertible physical

evidence that this is not mandated by biology. (Kessler 1990: 24-25)

• Kessler (1990): “The Medical Construction of
Gender: The Case Management of Intersexed
Infants”

• In the U.S., our policies have historically been to
classify intersexed children as either M or F and
socialize them accordingly into gender norms. The
goal has been to erase/hide as many bodily
differences as possible so that people can pass,
or at least cover, as they age. “The genital
ambiguity is remedied to conform to a ‘natural,’
that is, culturally indisputable, gender dichotomy”
(24-25).
• Many intersex people have objected to surgical
and medical interventions they experienced prior
to understanding their situation. Their argument is
that the sex dichotomy is artificial, as it does not
reflect nature, and they should not be compelled
to uphold the gender dichotomy by
passing/covering.

Bodily Deviance and Intersex Variations
• Astle, et al. (2024), “Growing Up Intersex: A Thematic Analysis of Intersex Emerging Adults’ Key
Socialization Experiences in Childhood and Adolescence”

• Framework: Draw on a “critical intersex perspective” (p. 995)

• Research Methods: Interviews with 28 adults with intersex variation about their lived experiences with

socialization and stigma. Discovered six themes in their interviews:

1. We Don’t Talk About This

2. We’re All In The Dark

3. We Could Use Some Help

4. I Should Be Less Me

5. My Body Isn’t Mine

6. I Feel Supported and Empowered

• “Our study uniquely brings to light (a) the intersectionality of intersex experiences, including the overlap

between transgender and intersex experiences, (b) the relationship between eating disorders and intersex, and

(c) positive socialization experiences outside of intersex support groups alone.”

• Gender nonconformity (GNC)

Expressing
gender in ways that differ from what's
stereotypically tied to your sex assigned at birth.

• It’s visible. people can see that you are not conforming to sex roles

• Generally accepted that nonconforming
behaviors are common in childhood and can
be transient OR connected to “gender
dysphoria” (DSM-5: psychological distress
resulting from incongruence between sex
assigned at birth and gender identity).

“Gender Dysphoria” (DSM-5)

• Gender dysphoria is most common around age 11 (as high as 20%) but then declines and plateaus
by late teens. Depending on how you measure it, .5-2% of older teens and adults.
• “A strong desire to be of the other gender or an insistence that one is the other gender (or some
alternative gender different from one’s assigned gender)
• In boys (assigned gender), a strong preference for cross-dressing or simulating female attire; or
in girls (assigned gender), a strong preference for wearing only typical masculine clothing and a
strong resistance to the wearing of typical feminine clothing
• A strong preference for cross-gender roles in make-believe play or fantasy play
• A strong preference for the toys, games or activities stereotypically used or engaged in by the
other gender
• A strong preference for playmates of the other gender
• In boys (assigned gender), a strong rejection of typically masculine toys, games, and activities
and a strong avoidance of rough-and-tumble play; or in girls (assigned gender), a strong
rejection of typically feminine toys, games, and activities
• A strong dislike of one’s sexual anatomy
• A strong desire for the physical sex characteristics that match one’s experienced gender”

Schroeder & Fulcher (2025) “The Last Pink Straw…”

key question

Key question in the article: What do kids and parents think a gender
nonconforming boy should change?
• Note: They focus on boys because, as we have discussed, boys
typically report more pressure to conform to gender expectations
today than girls do. Also:
• Adults express more worry about feminine boys than masculine
girls.
• Parents of GNC sons have been found to try harder to change them.

Schroeder & Fulcher (2025): How their Study Worked

Meet “Tommy” Finding 1

67 children, ages 6 to 11 and 67 parents (82% mothers)

51 attributes to remove or add

1. See Tommy
A paper doll boy shown with feminine appearance, activities,
and traits, matched to the participant's race.
2. Hear his story
Tommy is happy with himself and his family loves him as he
is. Lately he wants more friends who are boys.
3. Give him advice
Remove any feminine item, or add masculine and neutral
ones. Kids moved magnets in person; parents dragged
images online.

Three Ways to Express Gender:

Appearance - you could add baseball cap, car shirt, athletic shorts, blue jeans, beanie, etc.

Activities - you could add Football, LEGOs, video games, superheroes, soccer, piano, bikes

Traits- Could add Rough, competitive, active, good at math, helpful, respectful

Prediction: the more visible the nonconformity, the more people would want it changed. Appearance first,
traits last

-Why?: Both groups changed appearance most and traits least.

Why might that be?

• Salience: looks are noticed first.

• Malleability: a haircut is easier than a new personality.

• Method: traits were text, not pictures.

Schroeder & Fulcher (2025): How their Study Worked

Meet “Tommy” Finding 2 - subtracting and adding

They found that kids were more focused on changing Tommy’s appearance, while the parents were more focused on his traits.

Kids were taking away visible things that show a difference and parents add more boy options and kept some of who he is

Schroeder & Fulcher (2025): How their Study Worked

Meet “Tommy” Finding 3 - pressure gets passed along

They found that parents who felt the most pressure to conform in society suggested the most changes to Tommy. A strong effect

They didnt find a correlation between children’s felt pressure to conform and changing Tommy. Boys felt more pressure than girls

This suggests that parents who carry their own gender pressure pass it to children even the ones who aren’t theirs.

Schroeder & Fulcher (2025): How their Study Worked

Meet “Tommy” Finding 4 - Kids didn’t copy their parents

No parent-child match
• A parent's changes to Tommy didn't predict
their child's changes.
• A parent's felt pressure didn't predict their
child's felt pressure.
• The authors suggest a "generational
zeitgeist": peers and the wider culture may
shape these attitudes more than family
does.

Cahill saw this in 1986

A preschool boy with a long ponytail told
his mom his teacher had banned
ponytails at school. No one had. He
made up the rule himself so he would be
read clearly as a boy. By age 4 or 5, kids
conform even when the adults around
them don't push it.

Online sample of the US transgender population and peer groups

1,093 trans adults surveyed online

48 states, plus DC, and Puerto Rico

2003 year data was collected

79% were white

-a one hour online survey recruited through trans community websites and forums. 629 trans women and 464 trans men. Distress measured

felt stigma and enacted stigma

-family support, peer support, and identity/pride are important to protecting transgender individuals from the psychological effects of discrimination.

suggests that support from other transgender individuals can buffer the negative psychological effects of discrimination.

A community of peers allows for a social
environment in which variant identity is not
stigmatized and in which self-evaluation can
occur in comparison with like others, rather
than with members of the majority culture.

Bocking et al. e 2013 Stigma, Mental Health, & Resilience in Trans Pop

which findings surprised researchers about differences between trans womena and men

they found that men transitioning to women resulted in more stigma