government

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the United States Constitution, which guarantee foundational rights and liberties to citizens.

1st Amendment

Protects freedom of religion, speech, the press, peaceful assembly, and the right to petition the government.

2nd Amendment

Protects the right of the people to keep and bear arms.

3rd Amendment

Prohibits the federal government from forcing citizens to house soldiers in their homes during peacetime.

4th Amendment

Protects citizens against unreasonable searches and seizures and requires warrants to be supported by probable cause.

5th Amendment

Guarantees due process and grand jury rights, protects against self-incrimination and double jeopardy, and limits eminent domain.

6th Amendment

Guarantees the right to a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury, the right to legal counsel, and the right to confront witnesses in criminal cases.

7th Amendment

Guarantees the right to a jury trial in civil court cases involving property or money.

8th Amendment

Prohibits excessive bail, excessive fines, and cruel and unusual punishments.

9th Amendment

Clarifies that the rights listed in the Constitution are not exhaustive, meaning people retain other rights not explicitly mentioned.

10th Amendment

Establishes that any powers not explicitly delegated to the federal government by the Constitution are reserved to the states or to the people.

Tinker v. Des Moines

A landmark Supreme Court case ruling that students do not "shed their constitutional rights to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate." Protects peaceful symbolic speech.

Frederick v. Morse

A Supreme Court case ruling that public schools can restrict student speech that reasonably encourages illegal drug use.

Probable Cause

A reasonable belief, backed by facts and circumstances, that a crime has been committed or that evidence is present.

Reasonable Suspicion

A lower legal standard than probable cause that allows law enforcement to briefly detain or conduct a limited search based on specific facts.

Due Process

The constitutional guarantee that the government must respect all legal rights owed to a person, ensuring fair legal procedures.

Grand Jury

A group of citizens convened to evaluate whether there is enough evidence to officially charge someone with a serious crime.

Eminent Domain

The power of the government to take private property for public use, provided that the owner receives just compensation.

Self Incrimination

The act of forcing or compelling a defendant to testify against themselves in a criminal case.

Double Jeopardy

The constitutional protection preventing a person from being tried twice for the same crime after being legally acquitted or convicted.

Marbury v. Madison

The landmark 1803 Supreme Court case that established the principle of judicial review.

Writ of Mandamus

A court order compelling a government official or lower court to properly perform their official duties.

Judicial Review

The power of the courts to review legislative and executive actions and declare them unconstitutional.

Plaintiff

The person or party who initiates a lawsuit or brings a legal case against another in court.

Defendant

The individual, company, or institution being sued or accused in a court of law.

Arbiter - Judge

A public official presiding over a courtroom to ensure trials are conducted fairly.

Original Jurisdiction

The power of a court to hear a case first, where the trial takes place.

Appellate Jurisdiction

The authority of a higher court to review, uphold, or overturn decisions made by lower courts.

Exclusive Jurisdiction

The authority held by only one specific court system to hear a particular kind of case.

Concurrent Jurisdiction

Authority shared by both federal and state courts to hear certain types of cases.

Supreme Court

The highest federal court in the United States, consisting of nine justices, primarily hearing cases on appeal.

Court of Appeals

The intermediate level of the federal court system that reviews decisions made by federal district courts.

District Court

The lowest tier and primary trial courts in the federal system where federal cases begin.

U.S. District Court

The official name for the federal trial courts distributed across judicial districts nationwide.

Appointment

The formal selection of a federal judge or Supreme Court justice by the President.

Confirmation

The U.S. Senate's constitutional process of reviewing and approving a presidential nominee.

Writs of Certiorari

A formal order issued by the Supreme Court directing a lower court to send up the records of a case for review.

Rule of Four

The Supreme Court practice stating that at least four of the nine justices must agree to hear a case before a writ of certiorari is granted.

Briefs

Written legal documents submitted by opposing attorneys detailing their arguments and precedents.

Amicus Curiae Briefs

"Friend of the court" briefs submitted by outside organizations to provide additional perspective.

Oral Arguments

The session where lawyers present their case face-to-face to Supreme Court justices.

Majority Opinion

The official written ruling and legal reasoning agreed upon by a majority of the justices of the Supreme Court.

Minority Opinion

Written by one or more justices who disagree with the majority decision, explaining their reasoning.

Concurring Opinion

Written by a justice who agrees with the majority outcome but emphasizes different legal reasoning.