General Research Orientations, Research Designs, and Research Ethics

Vocabulary flashcards reviewing essential definitions, theoretical stances, research designs, causation criteria, and ethical principles from Chapters 1, 2, and 3.

Middle range theories

Merton's (1967) terminology for theories that are limited in scope and can be tested directly by gathering empirical evidence, such as Durkheim's theory of suicide (1897).

Grand theories

Merton's (1967) terminology for grand and abstract theories, ranging from older sociological theories like structural-functionalism to newer contributions like standpoint, feminism, or Giddens's structuration theory.

Deductive approach

A research approach that begins with theory and emphasizes hypothesis generation and testing.

Inductive approach

A research approach that begins with observations, focusing on the generation of theories and interpretations.

Epistemology

The branch of philosophy concerned with what we can know and how we can come to know it.

Positivism

An epistemological stance asserting that facts must be tangible (seen or heard), science should proceed through hypothesis-testing, and research must be value-free.

Interpretivism

An epistemological view focusing on subjective meanings of people's actions to create empathetic understandings and interpretations of human behavior from the point of view of actors.

Critical approaches to social science

Research perspectives asserting that research is not value-free and should be action-oriented with the purpose of ridding the world of suffering.

Ontology

The study of how we exist, which determines how research questions are formulated and carried out.

Objectivism

An ontological position holding that there is a pre-existent social reality independent of actors.

Constructionism

An ontological position asserting that social reality creates objects and relationships in specific ways that vary from society to society.

Quantitative methods

Research methods that use numbers and statistics, incorporate a deductive approach to theory testing, adopt positivist norms, and view society as an external, objective reality.

Qualitative methods

Research methods relying on words and non-numerical symbols, incorporating an inductive approach to theory generation, interpretivism, and viewing reality as an emergent property.

Wallace Model

A conceptualization of the research process moving through four key stages: Theory, Hypothesis, Observation, and Generalization.

Nomothetic explanations

Causal explanations that must satisfy three specific criteria of causation: correlation, time order, and non-spuriousness.

Correlation

A criterion of causation requiring that the proposed cause and the proposed effect vary together.

Time order

A criterion of causation requiring that the proposed cause must precede the effect in time.

Non-spuriousness

A criterion of causation requiring that alternative explanations for the observed correlation must be ruled out.

Spurious correlation

A false or illegitimate relationship between two variables, commonly caused by a third variable that influences both the cause and the effect.

Idiographic explanations

Explanations involving a detailed story or description of the people studied based on empathetic understanding.

Research design

A framework for the collection and analysis of data that will be used to answer a research question.

Internal validity

Sufficient evidence that a causal relationship exists between two or more variables.

Reactive effects

Changes in participant behavior or research outcomes that occur when people know they are participating in an experiment or being observed.

Cross-sectional design

A research design entailing the collection of data (usually quantitative) at a single point in time across multiple cases to detect patterns of association.

Longitudinal design

A research design in which data are collected from a sample on at least two separate occasions, such as in panel or cohort studies.

Case study design

A research design entailing a detailed and intensive analysis of a single case or a small number of cases for comparative purposes, such as critical, extreme, or revelatory cases.

Tri-Council Policy Statement

The Canadian ethical guidelines (Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans) administered through localized Research Ethics Boards to regulate research involving human subjects.

Respect for Persons

An ethical principle holding that research subjects must be treated as individuals with dignity, requiring free, informed, and ongoing consent.

Concern for Welfare

An ethical principle addressing respect for privacy, confidentiality, anonymity, and protection from harm for research subjects.

Random response technique

A quantitative research method used to overcome anonymity issues when gathering sensitive data.

Justice

An ethical principle requiring that the burdens and benefits of research are spread evenly across society without exploitation.