CH 1+2: Intro, Ethics, Theories

development

____________- systematic continuities and changes in the individual over the course of life

developmental continuities

Developmental

________ - ways in which we remain stable over time or continue to reflect our past

developmental psychology

Developmental

________ - branch of psychology devoted to identifying and explaining the continuities and changes that individuals display over time.

developmentalist

Developmental

________ - any scholar, regardless of discipline (e.g., psychologist, biologist, sociologist, anthropologist, educator), who seeks to understand the developmental process

maturation

Two main reasons why we develop

__________- developmental changes in the body or behaviour that result from the aging process rather than from learning, injury, illness, or some other life experience.

learning

Two main reasons why we develop

__________-relatively permanent change in behaviour (or behavioural potential) that results from one’s experiences or practice

2 main reasons of development

______ -maturation and learning

two patterns of change

these are normative development and ideographic development

normative development

two patterns of change

__________ - developmental changes that characterize most or all members of a species, typical patterns of development

ideographic development

two patterns of change

___________ - individual variations in the rate, extent, or direction of development

optimization

a goal of development relies on cultural and societal values, and depends on the values developmentalists share with the larger cultural contexts they are part of. may affect research agendas

nature of development

a continual and lifelong process, a Holistic process, plastic, has historical and cultural context.

holistic perspective

nature of development

Unified view of the developmental process that emphasises the important interrelationships among the physical, mental, social, and emotional aspects of human development

plasticity

nature of development

refers to a capacity for change; A developmental state that has the potential to be shaped by experience.

• EX: aggressive children who are disliked by peers often improve their social status after learning and practicing social skills at popular children display

early philosophical perspectives

include Original Sin, innate purity and tabula rasa

Original Sin

early philosophical perspectives

idea that children are inherently negative creatures who must be taught to rechannel their selfish interests into socially acceptable outlets. From Thomas Hobbes

innate purity

early philosophical perspectives

idea that infants are born with an intuitive sense of right and wrong that is often misdirected by the demands and restrictions of society, by Jean Jacques

tabula rasa

early philosophical perspectives

the idea that the mind of an infant is a “blank slate” and that all knowledge, abilities, behaviours and motives are acquired through experience, by John Locke

baby biography

a detailed record of an infant's growth and development over a period of time

• an early one was Charles Darwin, who made daily records of the early development of his son, stemming from his theory of evolution

• followed by Clara and William Stern which became a classic in language acquisition literature

• then Jean Piaget
  
  

scientific method

the use of objective and replicable methods to gather data for the purpose of testing a theory or hypothesis. It dictates that above all, investigators must be objective and must allow their data to decide the merits of their thinking

Theory

scientific method

a set of concepts and propositions designed to organise, describe and explain an existing set of observations

hypothesis

scientific method

a theoretical prediction about some aspect or experience

• the method used to collect data. Should be objective and every method be replicable

reliability

scientific method

The extent to which a measuring instrument yields consistent results, both over time and across observers

• inter-rater reliability: independent observers come to the same conclusions

• test-retest reliability: similar scores for individual children

Validity

scientific method

The extent to which a measuring instrument accurately reflects what the researchers intended to measure

structured interview

research methods: self-report methods

a technique in which all participants are asked the same questions in precisely the same order, so that the responses of different participants can be compared

• Must hope things are honest and accurate but if not, it can lead to bad conclusions

• can be great to obtain large amounts of info in a short time

clinical method

research methods: self-report methods

a type of interview in which participants responds to each successive question or problem determines what the investigator will ask next

• done by Jean Piaget. To study children's moral reasoning and intellectual development

Flexible, good for large amounts of info in brief periods, but can be hard to compare and may be subjective

naturalistic observation

research methods: observational methods

a method in which the scientist tests hypotheses by observing people as they engage in everyday activities in their natural habits (ex: at home, at school, or on the playground)

• can observe, data which cannot be studied through methods that demand verbal skills and illustrates how people behave every day

• can fall into observer influence, however

observer influence

research methods: observational methods

Tendency of participants to react to an observer's presence by behaving in unusual ways

• attempt to stop this by: videotaping participants from a concealed location or spending time in the setting before collecting their real data so the people they're observing will grow used to them and behave naturally

time-sampling

research methods: observational methods

A procedure in which the investigator records the frequencies with which individuals display particular behaviours during the brief time intervals. That each is observed

• done by Mary Haskett and Janet Kistner to compare social behaviours of non abuse preschoolers with those identified as having been physically abused

• observed abused children initiated fewer social interactions and were socially withdrawn. And when they did play, others displayed more aggressive acts and negative behaviour. Nonabused children often ignored positive social initiations of an abused child

structured observation

research methods: observational methods

an observational method, in which the investigator accused the behaviour of interest and observes participants' responses in a laboratory

• Ex: hiding a hidden camera, or one way mirror to see if people perform a certain behaviour

most feasible way of studying behaviours that occur infrequently and not openly displayed in the natural environment also ensure every participant in the sample is exposed to the same eliciting stimuli and has an equal opportunity to perform target behaviour, which is not always true in the natural environment.

however, participants may not respond in a lab setting the same way as everyday life

case study

research methods

a research method in which the investigator gathers extensive information about the life of an individual and then tests developmental hypotheses by analyzing the events of the person's life history

• may not be standardized, and very considerably case-to-case but can describe groups and be very in depth it is difficult to directly compare these and lack generalizability

• Ex: children from a large city in the United States may not apply to Canada or Southeast Asia

ethnography

research methods

method in which the researcher seeks to understand the unique values, traditions, and social processes of a culture or subculture by living with its members and making extensive observations and notes.

• data is typically diverse and extensive with largely naturalistic observations notes made with people of the culture and interpretations. create a detailed portrait

• a highly subjective method. Because researchers own cultural values, and biases can cause them to misinterpret plus they pertain only to the culture being studied, and can't be generalized

psychophysiological methods

research methods

methods that measure the relationships between physiological processes and aspects of children's physical, cognitive, social, or emotional/behaviour development

• Ex: comparisons of baseline levels such as increase in heart rate EEG recordings, MRIs and eye tracking

can help with false beliefs to reveal cognitive abilities not present in verbal responses

are not perfect because it can be hard to determine what aspect of stimulus captures attention and changes may reflect mood swings, fatigue, hunger or negative reactions to physiological recording, equipment rather than changes you wanna study

strengths and limits of research methods

Correlational design

detecting relationships

a type of research design that indicates the strength of associations among variables; The correlated variables are systemically related. These relationships are not necessarily causal

correlation coefficient

detecting relationships: correlational design

numerical index ranging from negative 1.00 to plus 1.00 of the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables

maturation and learning

according to developmentalists what are the primary causes of developmental change?

1. maturation and recapitulation

2. learning and experience

3. experience and recapitulation

4. maturation and learning

all of the above

among the following who would not be considered a developmentalist?

1. a historian

2. an anthropologist

3. a sociologist

4. all of the above

5. none
   
   

optimization of development

Anthony is a developmentalist interested in helping children reach their full potential in math and reading skills. Anthony's goal is consistent with which of the following Global Goals of the Developmental sciences?

1. the description of development

2. The explanation of development

3. the optimization of development

4. The reorganization of development

Cognitive, Physical, and psychosocial

______ - perception, language, learning, and thinking

_______ - bodily changes in sequencing of motor skills

______ - emotions, personality and growth of relationships

experimental design

detecting relationships

a research design in which the investigator introduces some change into the participants environment and then measures the effect of that change on the participants behaviour

• IV, DV, confounding

• random assignment

• ecological validity

can establish an unambiguously that one thing causes another, but tightly controlled lab environment is often artificial and children are likely to behave differently than in a natural setting

independent variable

Detecting relationships: experimental design

the aspect of the environment that an experimenter modifies or manipulates in order to measure its impact on behaviour

dependent variable

detecting relationships: experimental design

the aspect of behaviour that is measured in an experiment and is assumed to be under the control of the independent variable

confounding variable

detecting relationships: experimental design

some factor other than the independent variable that if not controlled by the experimenter, could explain any differences across treatment conditions in participants performance on the dependent variable

experimental control

Detecting relationships: experimental design

Steps taken by an experimenter to ensure that all extraneous factors that could influence the dependent variable a roughly equivalent in each experimental condition: these precautions must be taken before an experimenter can reasonably certain that observe changes in the dependent variable were caused by manipulation of independent variable

• one way to fix: random assignment

random assignment

detecting relationships: experimental design

control technique, in which participants are assigned to experimental conditions through an unbiased procedure so that the members of the groups are not systemically different from one another.

ecological validity

detecting relationships: experimental design

state of affairs in which the findings of one's research are an accurate presentation of processes that occur in the natural environment

• Do this by conducting a field experiment

field experiment

detecting relationships: experimental design — ecological validity

an experiment that takes place in a naturalistic setting, such as home school or a playground

• A conclusion drawn from a lab experiment also applies in the real world

natural/quasi experiment

Detecting relationships: experimental design

a study in which the investigator measures the impact of some naturally occurring event that's assumed to affect people's lives

strengths and limits of research designs

cross-sectional design

other research designs

a research design in which the subjects from different age groups are studied at the same point in time. people come from different cohorts

• can identify age-related changes in whatever aspect of development they're studying, easy to conduct

• biggest limits are the cohort effect and data of individual development which this design— does not tell about development of individuals— cuz at only one point in time

cohort

other research designs: cross-sectional design

a group of people of the same age who are exposed to similar cultural environments and historical events as they're growing up

cohort effects

other research designs: cross-sectional design

age-related difference among cohorts that is attributable to cultural and historical differences in cohorts as growing up experiences rather than true developmental change

longitudinal design

other research designs

research design in which one group of subjects is studied repeatedly over a period of months or years

• practice effects

• selective attrition

• non-representative sample

• cross-generational problem

can help assess stability continuity identify normative developmental trends and understand individual differences

Can fall into practice effects, selective attrition leading to a non representative sample and cross generational problems

Practice effects

other research designs: longitudinal design

changes in participants' natural responses as a result of repeated testing.

selective attrition

other research designs: longitudinal design

non random loss of participants during a study that results in a non representative sample.

non representative sample

other research designs: longitudinal design

a subgroup that differs in important ways from the larger group or population to which it belongs

cross-generational problem

other research designs: longitudinal design
the fact that long-term changes in the environment may limit the conclusions of a longitudinal project to that generation of children who are growing up. While the study was in progress

• are typically drawn from one cohort and likely to have different kinds of experiences from kids, from other eras

  • Ex: today's children with social media are different from a time before social media.

sequential design

other research designs

a research design in which subjects from different age groups are studied repeatedly over a period of months or years. combine the best features of cross-sectional and longitudinal studies.

• strengths are it can determine cohort effects, and make both longitudinal and cross sectional comparisons in the study

microgenetic studies

other research designs

a research design and which participants are studied extensively over a period of time as developmental changes occur; attempts to specify how or why those changes occur

• Favoured by people who study children's cognitive development

• present a unique opportunity to witness and record actual processes of change as it occurs

• but, it's difficult, time consuming and very costly to track large numbers of children

cross-cultural comparison

other research designs

a study that compares the behavior and/or development of people from different cultural or subcultural backgrounds

strengths and limits of other research designs

informed consent

ethics

the right of research participants to receive an explanation in language they can understand of all aspects, of research that may affect their willingness to participate

• Includes informed assent

protection from harm

ethics

the right of research participants to be protected from physical or psychological harm

benefits-to-risk ratio

ethics

a comparison of possible benefits of A study for advancing knowledge and optimizing life conditions versus its costs to participants in terms of inconvenience and possible harm.

Minimal risk

ethics

term used when assessing risk and ethics. Reviews that are first to risks that are no greater than those 1 would encounter in daily life.

autonomy, nonmaleficence, and beneficence

ethics

the decision about ethicality of a research project are based on these three general principles

Theory

a set of concepts and propositions designed to organize, describe, and explain an existing set of observations

parsimonious, falsifiable, heuristic

these are the 3 characteristics of a good theory

parsimony

3 parts of a good theory

the criterion for evaluating the scientific merit of theories; A parsimonious theory is one that uses relatively few explanatory principles to explain a broad set of observations

falsifiability

3 parts of a good theory

a criterion for evaluating, the scientific merit of theories; a theory is falsifiable when it is capable of generating predictions that could be disconfirmed

Heuristic Value

3 parts of a good theory

a criterion for evaluating the scientific merit of theories; a heuristic theory is one that continues to simulate new research and discoveries

Freud's Psychosexual Theory

psychoanalytic theories

states maturation of the sex instinct underlies stages of personality development. And that the manner in which parents manage children's instinctual impulses determines the traits that children display

• unconscious motives

• repressed

• drives

unconscious motives

Psychoanalytic: Freud's Psychosexual Theory

Freud's term for feelings, experiences, and conflicts that influence a person's thinking and behaviour but lie outside the person's conscious awareness

repression

Psychoanalytic: Freud's Psychosexual Theory

the type of motivated forgetting in which anxiety-provoking thoughts and conflicts are forced out of the conscious awareness

• unconscious motives go through this

drive

Psychoanalytic: Freud's Psychosexual Theory

an inborn biological force that motivates a particular response or class of responses

id, ego, superego

Psychoanalytic: Freud's Psychosexual Theory

these are the three components of personality

id

Psychoanalytic: Freud's Psychosexual Theory (parts of personality)

psychoanalytic term for the inborn component of the personality that is compelled by the drives. is present at birth, and its sole function is to satisfy inborn biological drives immediately

• the infants seem to be this

ego

Psychoanalytic: Freud's Psychosexual Theory (parts of personality)

psychoanalytic term for the rational component of the personality. reflects emerging abilities to perceive, learn, remember, and reason. And is a realistic means of gratifying instincts

• Ex: a hungry toddler seeks out Mom and says Cookie

• as this mature children become better at controlling the ids and find better realistic ways

superego

Psychoanalytic: Freud's Psychosexual Theory (parts of personality)

psychoanalytic term for the component of personality that consists of one's internalized moral standards

• the seat of conscious, developing between ages of three and six as children internalize their moral values and standards of the parents

• once it emerges. Children don't need someone to tell them to be good or bad. They're now aware and will feel guilty or ashamed if unethical

OAPLG: stages of psychlogical development

Psychoanalytic: Freud's Psychosexual Theory

1. Oral

2. Anal

3. Phallic

4. Latency

5. Genital

fixation

Psychoanalytic: Freud's Psychosexual Theory

arrested development at a particular psychosexual stage that can prevent movement to higher stages

1) Oral

Psychoanalytic: Freud's Psychosexual Theory (Stages of psychosexual development)

the sex instinct centres on the mouth because infants drive pleasure from such oral activities such as sucking, chewing and biting, feeding activities are particularly important.

for example, an infant weaned too early or roughly may crave close contact and become overdependent on a spouse

• Birth-1yr

2) Anal

Psychoanalytic: Freud's Psychosexual Theory (Stages of psychosexual development)

voluntary urination and defecation became primary methods of gratifying the sex instinct bullet training produces major conflicts between children and parents. The emotional climate that parents create can have lasting effects

children punished for toileting accidents may become inhibited, messy or wasteful

• 1-3yrs

3) Phallic

Psychoanalytic: Freud's Psychosexual Theory (Stages of psychosexual development)

pleasure is now derived from genital stimulation children develop an incestuous desire for the opposite sex parent (called the Odeipus complex for boys and Electra complex for girls), anxiety stemming from this conflict causes children to internalise the sexual characteristics and moral standards of their same-sex parental rival

• 3-6yrs

4) Latency

Psychoanalytic: Freud's Psychosexual Theory (Stages of psychosexual development)

Traumas of the phallic stage cause sexual conflicts to be repressed and sexual urges to be rechannelled into schoolwork and vigorous play. The ego and superego continue to develop as the child gains more problem- solving abilities at school and internalizes societal values.

• 6-11yrs

5) Genital

Psychoanalytic: Freud's Psychosexual Theory (Stages of psychosexual development)

Puberty triggers a reawakening of sexual urges. Adolescents must now learn how to express these urges in socially acceptable ways. If development has been healthy, the mature sex instinct is satisfied by marriage and raising children

• 12yrs+

unconscious motivation

Psychoanalytic: Freud's Psychosexual Theory

a big part of Freud's theories that include sensory processes and perceptual illusions

Erikson's theory of Psychosocial Development

Psychoanalytic

Erickson's revision of Freud's theory, which emphasizes sociocultural (rather than sexual) determinants of developmental and posit series of eight psychosocial conflicts that people must resolve successfully to display healthy psychological adjustments

Freud’s id

The part of personality that communicates basic needs and seeks immediate satisfaction.

Freud’s ego

The part of personality that balances the demands of the id, the superego, and the external world by finding realistic ways to satisfy needs.

Freud’s superego

The part of personality that decides whether the ego’s problem-solving strategies are morally acceptable.

Freud’s psychosexual development theory

A theory that explains personality development through five stages in which the focus of the sexual instinct shifts from one part of the body to another.

- Early childhood experiences and conflicts heavily influence adult interests, activities, and personalities.

Fixation

Arrested development in which a person becomes attached to an activity from an earlier developmental stage and retains aspects of it throughout life.

- Example: An infant strongly punished for sucking their thumb might develop an oral fixation expressed through chain smoking or oral sex in adulthood.

1) Oral stage

Freud’s first psychosexual stage, from birth to 1 year, when the sexual instinct centres on the mouth and infants derive pleasure from sucking, chewing, and biting.

- Example: An infant weaned too early or abruptly may later crave close contact and become overdependent on a spouse.

2) Anal stage

Freud’s second psychosexual stage, from 1–3 years, when voluntary urination and defecation become the primary methods of gratifying the sexual instinct.

• Toilet training can create major conflicts between children and parents.

• Example: Children punished for toileting accidents may become inhibited, messy, or wasteful.

3) Phallic stage

Freud’s third psychosexual stage, from 3–6 years, when pleasure is derived from genital stimulation and children supposedly develop an incestuous desire for the opposite-sex parent.

• Oedipus complex: Freud’s idea that boys desire their mother and view their father as a rival.

• Electra complex: The corresponding idea that girls desire their father and view their mother as a rival.

• Freud believed children internalize the sex-role characteristics and moral standards of their same-sex parental rival.

4) Latency stage

Freud’s fourth psychosexual stage, from 6–11 years, when sexual conflicts are repressed and sexual urges are redirected toward schoolwork and vigorous play.

- The ego and superego continue to develop as children improve their problem-solving skills and internalize societal values.

5) Genital stage

Freud’s fifth psychosexual stage, beginning around age 12, when puberty triggers a reawakening of sexual urges and adolescents learn to express them in socially acceptable ways.

- Freud believed healthy development allows mature sexual instincts to be satisfied through marriage and raising children.