HISTORY 101

Colonialism

Full control over another country or region by a stronger state

Why were Europeans interested in sailing West?

They wanted to find a new sea route to Asia, especially China and India.

What advantages did Europeans hope to gain (sailing West)?

They hoped to find valuable goods and make trade more profitable.

How did Europeans trade with the Far East before Columbus?

Before Columbus, Europeans traded with the Far East through land & sea routes, often using Arab merchants.

The Silk Road

An old trade route connecting India, China, and Europe. Goods reached Europe through the Middle East.

First Attempt Around Africa (1488)

—Bartolomeu Dias was a Portuguese nobleman
—He reached the Cape of Good Hope in Africa
—His crew refused to go any farther
—He could not continue to India

Vasco da Gama (1497–1498)

> Portuguese explorer

> He was the first European to sail from Portugal to India by going around Africa

> The Portuguese established a colonial empire in Asia

The consequences of da Gama’s discovery of a sea route:

→Europeans could bypass the Middle East

→ME merchants lost control over the spice trade

→Europeans could buy spices directly from Asia at lower prices

Advantages for Europeans

• Economic: Goods became cheaper

• Trade: The exchange of goods increased

• Political: Europeans built new empires

Christopher Columbus (1492)

Italian explorer, navigator, and colonizer.

He crossed the Atlantic Ocean and reached the Americas. He visited five Caribbean islands.

Motives for Columbus’s Voyage

Geopolitical: To increase Spain’s power and influence.

Economic: To find wealth, gold, and new trade routes.

Why Was the Columbus Voyage Possible?

• Advances in maritime technology (ships)

• Support from the Queen of Spain

The Columbian Exchange

The exchange of diseases, food, animals, plants, and ideas between Europe, Africa, and the Americas after Columbus’s voyages

Columbian Exchange: New Products

From the Americas: Potatoes, maize, cassava, and sweet potatoes

From other regions: Wheat, barley, and rice

These products changed food, trade, and the global economy

Quinine

Used to treat malaria

Peanuts

Became a popular snack, especially in Western countries.

Vegetable oils

Became important in everyday diets and the food industry.

Cultural Exchange (+)

→Exchange of food and crops
→Development of medicines
→Spread of music and traditions

Cultural Exchange (-)

Destruction of Indigenous cultures, loss of cultural diversity and traditions

Amerigo Vespucci (1497—1504)

Helped Europeans recognise it as a new continent, and America was named after him.

Ferdinand Magellan (1480—1521)

Led the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe.

Ferdinand Magellan’s Death (1521)

→ Reached the Philippines and allied with local rulers who converted to Christianity

→ Helped an ally fight a rival chieftain

→ Magellan was killed at the Battle of Mactan on April 27, 1521

Juan Sebastián Elcano (1522)

Took command after Magellan’s death. Completed the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe. Only 18 survivors returned to Spain in 1522.

Jacques Cartier (1491–1557)

Explored New France, now part of Canada.

Discovery of Silver in Peru (1545)

• Silver transformed global trade and enriched the Spanish Empire

• Europe benefited greatly, while the Middle East faced economic challenges as trade routes changed

Negative Effects of Silver in Peru

• Native peoples suffered

• Cultural destruction and loss of traditions

• Depopulation by: Diseases, enslavement…

European Dominance

Strengthened by Christianity and military conquest, contributed to the destruction of local cultures

Goals of Conquest

• Destroy Indigenous religions and traditions

• Replace them with Christianity

The Maya

Indigenous civilization in Central America and southern Mexico

Destruction of Maya Culture

-Conquerors destroyed sacred sites and built churches instead

-Only three Maya books survived, so the writing system is only partially deciphered

Art and Monuments

Help us understand pre-Columbian civilizations

The New World

The name Europeans used for the Americas after they began reaching them

The Lasting Impact of Columbus

Everyone in the Americas has been shaped by the past 500 years, including Indigenous peoples and settlers.

Bardic (Traditional)

Narrative accounts that tell the story of the voyage.

Analytic (Modern)

Records that examine the facts, evidence, and historical impact.

How Indigenous Peoples Were Portrayed

Described as savages and infidels

Ethnocentrism

The belief that white Europeans were better in race, religion, and culture.

Scientists

Questioned and rejected old beliefs

Archaeologists

Discovered evidence of advanced ancient civilisations

Historians

Re-examined and rewrote history based on new evidence

Charles Darwin

Evolutionary theory: common ancestry, diversity, and change over time.

Karl Marx

Advocated equality and defended the working class

Louis Pasteur

Helped develop microbiology, showing the importance of microorganisms

How Global Discoveries Helped Historians

Europeans discovered new plants and animals. They also encountered new ideas, new peoples and cultures

European Colonization: Economic & Social

Europeans imposed Western culture on Indigenous people

Demographic Changes

World population increased

Native American population decreased

The Age of Discovery is named by many scholars:

The Greatest Tragedy of the Human Species

Feudalism

Land, privilege, and power

The Three Institutions

Church: religion and morality

Monarchy: authority and governance

Feudalism: land, privilege, and power

The five patriarchates (territory) recognized by the Christian Church

1. Rome

2. Constantinople

3. Alexandria

4. Antioch

5. Jerusalem

The Great Schism in 1053

Christianity is divided into two branches: the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.

When did Protestantism emerge?

15th century

Why was the Church extremely powerful?

The Church owned a lot of land and power.

It controlled education, literature, writing, publishing, and art.

Excommunication

A formal Church sanction excluding someone from the Catholic Church.

Why were kings scared of excommunication?

It threatened their religious legitimacy

The Divine Right of Kings

Monarchs received their authority from God not the people

The Pope Could:

• He could crown or legitimize rulers 

• Excommunicate

• Intervene in wars & policies

Feudal System

A king/lord granted land to a lesser noble in exchange for military service, counsel, and loyalty.

Commercial Revolution

A period of major growth in trade and business in Europe

Discovering Routes: Commercial Revolution

Initiated a shift toward a global economy (also gave Europeans an economic advantage)

Increase in Population: Commercial Revolution

More population → More consumers → More production → More profits

Mercantilism

Countries got more wealth and power by exporting more than they imported and collecting gold and silver

Mercantilist Policies

Aims to build national power by maximizing exports and minimizing imports while collecting profitable metals

Balance of Trade

A country’s exports exceed its imports

Export Subsidies

Financial benefits or tax breaks to encourage exports

Guilds

Associations of artisans and merchants that controlled production and trade

Guild: Protection of Members

Protected against competition, price undercutting, unfair wages, and economic problems

Guilds: Mutual Aid

Financial assistance during illness, hard economic periods, or a member’s death

Guilds: Professional & Legal Protection

Established training standards to protect members’ skills control over their trades

Guilds: Protection of Consumers

Maintained strict workmanship standards, regulated product quality, promoted fair prices.

Disadvantages of Guilds

Controlled production and trade, reduced competition, & increased prices

Rise of Entrepreneurs

Small producers could not manage world trade

Cottage Industry

Entrepreneurs moved production from cities to the countryside

Advantages of Cottage Industry

+More efficient

+Less guild control

+More production methods and skilled workers

Loss of Labor Independence

Workers lost independence, creativity, satisfaction, and status

New Economic System

Trade became more important than production and owning land

Capitalism

Private individuals and businesses own things like factories, tools, and land to make a profit.

Stock

A fraction of ownership in a business

Joint-Stock Company

A business jointly owned by shareholders through shares or stocks

Unlimited Liability

Business partners are personally responsible for company debts

Limited Liability

Shareholders are responsible only for the amount they invested

Non-Manufacturing Activities

Banking and insurance companies were important to the success of the Commercial Revolution

Savings Banks

Institutions that provided people with safe places to deposit money and get interest

Riba (Islamic Finance)

Increase, profit, or interest is unjust to Muslims

Rise of the Merchant Class

The Commercial Revolution created a rich merchant class that wanted more social status and political power

Secular Schools

Schools supported by governments that taught skills instead of only Church teachings.

Education & Social Mobility

Education became a way for the middle class to improve their economic and social status.

Slower Development in Eastern Europe

Business grew more slowly because a lot of the region was under Ottoman rule. The economy focused more on farming than industry.

Ottoman Economic Limitations

Lacked good plans to grow business and industry like strong property rights, investment money markets, and freedom

Feudalism: Economic Obstacle

Feudalism slowed business and industry because nobles controlled the land, and peasants had little freedom to choose where they worked.

Western European Feudalism

Feudalism slowly disappeared as the merchant class became more powerful

Eastern European Feudalism

Feudalism and serfdom remained strong

Eastern Europe’s Agricultural Economy

Eastern Europe focused on farming, which slowed the growth of industries

Ottoman Military Priorities

Spent many resources on wars and internal rebellions instead of business and industry

Western Europe’s Geographic Advantage

Access to the Atlantic Ocean made global trade easier and colonies helped capitalism grow

Eastern Europe’s Geographic Disadvantage

Limited sea access meant exporting raw materials and importing finished goods

Eastern Europe’s Economic Limitations

Growth was slow because of strict social classes, political problems, and control by governments and nobles.

Overall Economic Difference

Western Europe focused on trade and manufacturing, while Eastern Europe mainly supplied raw materials

Slave Trade: depending on region

Different regions practiced it in different ways

Atlantic Slave Trade

The forced transportation and trade of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean