Liberalism key words - Edexcel A-Level Politics Core Ideologies

feudalism

agrarian based production that involves a strong hierarchy and little social mobility. capitalism wiped this out, and that gave space for liberalism to develop

absolutism

government where political power is concentrated in a single person/very small group i.e. a monarchy

again this deteriorated as capitalism → a growing middle class with genuine power (their money) and needs to be met, which required representation

state of nature

a society with no established authority where freedoms are unrestrained

not quite anarchy; a state of perfect equality. proposed by Locke as a view of what life was before governance

his argument isn’t that these things are perfect, because when laws are violated (as they are made to be), it falls on the victim to enforce law and uphold equality even though they’re in a disadvantaged position. their freedoms are violated with no protection. so people WANT to give that up to government

foundational equality

all humans are entitled to certain rights and possess a moral worth just by virtue of being born

this forms the basis of tolerance, key in liberal society

formal equality

rules should not exclude individuals on the basis of arbitrary personal characteristics like gender or religion

human rights

the basic freedoms and protections every human is entitled to. they are universal, fundamental and concrete

the belief in human rights stems from foundational equality, a core liberal principle

inalienable rights

rights that the government should not impose on, e.g. right to life. the government shouldn’t be able to decide when you die

rule of law

the way citizens and government officials behave should align with the framework set out by the law

utilitarianism

maximising benefit for the majority of people

equality of opportunity

everyone should have equal chance to succeed and (perhaps more importantly in the modern state) to fail

social contract

the state exists only because the people enable it to by respecting laws, and the people respect its laws for their own self-preservation and protection

meritocracy

how much you succeed is based on ability and hard work

mechanistic theory

people created the state to serve them; to mediate their disputes, to give them power, etc.

tolerance

accepting and respecting the views and actions of others that disagree with one’s own

pluralism

a belief in diversity of choice - politically, personally, religiously etc.

but also the idea that political power (almost as a result of this, and tolerance) is widely dispersed; it isn’t and shouldn’t be held by the state alone.

• indeed by letting the state exist every citizen shares in a fraction of its sovereignty. some… maybe more than others. is that meritocracy or a failure of formal equality?

limited government

government power is restricted due to the fact power is corrupting; we don’t want the government to become massively self-serving, so we limit its power to act in its own favour via constitutions, elections, public pressure

bill of rights

a constitutional document that lays out the rights and freedoms of the individual and defines the relationship between individual and state

checks and balances

government power is divided amongst its branches to prevent any one branch from becoming overly dominant and corrupt

more colloqiually, ‘the checks and balances’ on a government’s power usually means the courts, the legislature, and all the laws that they’ve created and enforce - how these apply to gov actions

seperation of powers

legislature, executive and judiciary should be separate, independent branches of government

representative democracy

this is a UK Gov term; citizens elect individuals to exercise power on their behalf

consent

the public agrees to be governed; they consent to it by voting and not revolting

consensus

broad agreement on macro-level principles with nuances in the detail

e.g. most people would agree with the statement ‘everyone has the right to be happy’, but what exactly do we classify as ‘happy’? how does that manifest in the laws and rules that govern us?

egoistical individualism

NOT EGOTISTICAL!

egoistical means self-concerning; people use their freedom to advance their own pleasure first and foremost; so people are independent units in society. links into atomism

classical liberal pov

atomism

society is made up of self-interested and largely self-sufficient individuals rather than social groups

negative freedom

no external constraints on the individual enable complete freedom of choice; freedom from meddling

• nightwatchman government that steps in only to avoid harm caused by other-regarding acts

• manifests as strong freedom of speech, religion and low market regulation

minimal state

the state intervenes as little as possible in people’s lives to preserve their liberty

all well and good if you’re middle or upper class; you’ve got enough resources to self sustain. the working classes (especially historically) really did not. the fact government was only voted in by those classes meant only their interests were considered - and in their interest was a minimal state that didn’t interfere too much in their money or businesses

harm principle

people should be free to do whatever except harm others. proposed by J.S. Mills

• question is; what do we define as harm to others? liberal pov here is likely that it is whatever that individual finds harmful; thats a tenant of individualism. but government defines this under modern liberalism as well via lawmaking

self regarding acts

acts that affect only yourself, which one should have total and utter freedom over

part of J.S. Mills’ harm principle

other regarding acts

acts that affect others, which it is reasonable to limit

part of J.S. Mills’ harm principle

free market

the government doesn’t control competition between businesses; the businesses do by moving their money around

laissez faire capitalism

as little economic interference from the government as possible

• the idea of classic liberal laissez faire social policy also comes into play; people are responsible for themselves.

developmental individualism

people want to use their freedom to achieve their potential and grow, which necessitates co-operation amongst society

modern liberal pov

positive freedom

freedom is about being able to pursue personal fulfilment and develop one’s capacities. we encourage freedom TO do stuff rather than to protect freedom FROM influence

• simply having freedom isn’t enough because if people are uneducated or oppressed how can they exert that? we have to actively encourage it in people

keynesianism

economic system in which government involvement is said to be necessary to stimulate the market, workers, and to protect positive freedom

individualism

individual moral worth and freedoms are more important than the pursuit of control/of hegemony in society. people are central to society and they have inalienable rights that need to be respected

distributive justice

fair allocation of resources amongst the members of a community being seen a method of compensation/justice

enabling state

a large state that helps implement positive freedom and uplift meritocracy