Learning - Midterm 2

social learning theory

learning by observing others, imitating, observing outcomes

learning without immediate behaviour change or consequence

presence of mental acts with motor actions

learning through interactions

latent learning

collecting observations to use later

learning not immediately expressed, cannot tell you are learning

emphasizing the difference between learning and performance

imitation

copying others around you

emerges early - reflexive gestures as early as 1 day old

viewing an action is neurally related to imitation

role of cognition in learning

learning requires mental action

need attention, perception, memory to learn

information storage

awareness of consequences

does conditioning explain social/observational learning?

no!

not explained by generalization

no moment-by-moment obedience with doing what they observe

mirror neurons

very popular/common in research

low-level processing of observed actions by specific neurons

potential results of pairing of associations or associate learning

mirror neurons and autism

NO evidence of ‘broken-mirror theory’

no deficit in mirror neurons in autistic individuals

double-empathy problem

double-empathy problem

neurotypical people misunderstand neurodivergent individuals AND vice-versa

modelling

demonstrating a behaviour

most basic form of social learning

observational learning

4 pillars of social learning

1. attention

2. retention

3. production

4. motivation

attention

pillar of social learning

needed for any kind of learning

must pay explicit attention

vividness of modeller plays a role

retention

pillar of social learning

storing information and observed behaviours

production

pillar of social learning

takes time

requires retrieval → extends retention

reconsolidation of learning

semantic updating of memory - adding and generalizing new cues

motivation

pillar of social learning

wanting to learn

factors that impact: similarity to model, relevance to needs, competence of model, prestige of model

want to learn from someone who can actually produce direct results

higher motivation when learning from someone more similar to you

Bandura’s model of reciprocal causation

‘reciprocal determinism’

learners are not passive observers - active and engaged, choose behaviours and responses, perceive environment

previous experiences (successes/failures) influences performance

person, environment, behaviour influence each other

internal attribution

taking accountability for success

reflecting on behaviours

growth mindset

success = increased internal attribution

failure = increased external attribution

self-efficacy

confidence in your own ability to complete a task

impacts willingness to attempt activity, effort, focus

self-esteem

value we place on ourselves

seslf-concept

broadly how we think of ourselves

information and knowledge we have about ourselves

what impacts self-eficacy

prior experiences - success vs failure

recency effect - more recent events will be more relevant

experiences of others - their success and failures

current emotional state

self-regulation theory

how people control and manage their thoughts

how we maintain effort

steps of self-regulation theory

1. define task

2. set goals, make plan, specific strategies

3. use strategies

4. adapt to experiences

self-monitoring

sense of how we are doing based on own personal standards

self-control

doing things to help with your learning

adapting to improve learning

zone of proximal development

Vygotsky’s

range of cognitive functioning during tasks

high end vs. low end

easy but challenging to too difficult, frustration

want to be in middle

scaffolding

step by step encouragement to complete task

guidance while completing a task

e.g. explaining a concept, teaching how to swing a golf club

AI and social learning (ZPD) [study]

effective communication

motivation, engagement

more personalized assessment of goals

potential for long term support with:

• learning outcomes

• engagement

• critical thinking

• problem-solving skills

*no control conditions were observed - was AI really what helped or just the extra time spend (LOTS of confounds)

technoference

technology interfering with interpersonal interactions

impact of technoference on child-parent relationships

parent-child attachment weakens

lower social-emotional functioning

internalizing behaviours

indicators of depression and anxiety

sadness, worry, withdrawal, negative self-perception

externalizing behaviours

impulsivity

disruptive behaviours

aggression

hyperactivity

present-absent paradox

associated with technology use

always being available even when physically not there

added pressure to immediately respond to others

phubbing

phone snubbing

decreased engagement with those around you while being on your phone

not being as engaged in in-person conversations

*technoference

absent parenting

linked to present-absence paradox

increases negative outcomes for children:

• insecure attachment style

• behavioural problems

• physiological responses to stress

• more conflict between parent and child

early surveys on technoference

most common during playtime or free time with children

occurs throughout the day

impacts the child’s relationship with parents and with their peers

predictor for parent hostility and lower responsiveness to child - lack of safe parenting

McDaniel and Coyne, 2016

technoference and child functioning

bidirectional relationship

technoference associated with → increased externalizing behaviours from child → increased parental stress → increased technoference!

parented rates their technology use while spending time with children and childs’ behaviours

McDaniel and Radesky, 2018

technoference and social skills

positive parenting = prosocial behaviours in children

• warm and positive praise to reinforce desired behaviours

• appropriate punishments for undesired behaviours

negative parenting = aggressive behaviour towards peers

transfer parent-taught behaviours to peers

technoference and internalizing and externalizing behaviours

higher rating of technoference = higher reports of internalizing and externalizing behaviours

only with mothers, no association with fathers

→ potential primary caregiver effect, gender role effect

multi-informant approach

obtaining ratings of behaviours, etc. from multiple observers

*to combat informant discrepancies when looking at social-emotional functioning

Zayia et al., 2021 - social learning in the digital age

associations between technoference, mother-child attachment, child social skills

study attachment security between mothers and children

ages 6-10

social learning in digital ages study methods

mothers completed maternal attachment inventory

children complete security scale self-report

rated problematic phone use during parent-child time

rated social skills

completed in lab, or at home and school

child assent

consent from adults but children must also agree

social learning in digital ages study results - attachments

more technoference = lower secure attachment as rated by child

negative correlation between mothers’ rating of technoference and child rating of attachment security

NO correlation between mothers’ rating of technoference and mother rating of attachment security

social learning in digital ages study results - social-emotional functioning

higher technoference = lower rating of child’s social skills by mother

technoference not associated with child’s rating of social skills

higher technoference = higher rating of internalizing behaviours (rated by mothers)

higher technoference = higher rating of externalizing behaviours (mothers rating)

social learning in digital ages study moderating effect

lower technoference = lower rating of externalizing behaviours → but only with high maternal attachment

high maternal attachment did NOT buffer the effect of high technoference on externalizing behaviours

social learning in digital ages study limitations

bias from mothers

technoference = number of devices in home only, not concrete measure

subjective, self-reporting

inconsistency with responses between mothers and children

no causation, correlation only

adolescent phubbing and perceived parental ignorance

association between perceived parental ignorance and adolescent phubbing

phubbing driven by academic burnout

the amygdala is regulated by _____

norepinephrine

amygdala

happiness

anger

mostly fear

fear conditioning

short pathway to amygdala

directly from thalamus

not through cortex

quick arousal in fearful situations

long pathway to amygdala

through cortex

visual and auditory processing of environmental stimuli in cortex

fear conditioning

pairing of a fearful stimulus with a neutral stimulus

consciously or implicitly (unconsciously)

implicit learning

unconscious

do not know learning is happening

absence of explicit instructions

physiological and cortical gauges of emotion

heart rate

pupil dilation

sweating

→ increased when frightened, decreased when calm

cognitive component in frontal cortex

two-factor theory of emotions

by Schacter-Singer

different emotions = different physiological responses

stimuli → physiological response → cognitive emotional label

misattribution of arousal

assuming the wrong cause for a state of arousal

can distract our attention from learning

emotion

temporary specific state of feeling

part of an event

mood

long-term emotional state

does not need to be tied to an event

affect

core dimension of emotions and mood

pleasure, tension, energy, arousal

affective dimensions

valence → pleasure-displeasure

arousal → sleepy-activated

valence

affective dimension

pleasure-displeasure

positive to negative emotions

upset, unpleasant, sad, happy, content

processed in prefrontal cortex

arousal (dimension)

affective dimensions

sleepy-activated

activation of amygdala and hippocampus

calm, fatigued, tense, alert

frustration during learning

when facing an obstacle

increased intensity when very close to reaching goal

have to endure frustration in order to learn (desirable difficulty)

frustration with babies learning

can turn into externalizing behaviours, aggression

baby had to move arm to turn on TV → then stopped working, would move arm but no TV => negative expressions, increased heart rate

extinction burst - still moving arm alot after TV stopped turning on

anxiety

ongoing stressful worry

about performance (primary goal) during learning

caused by evaluation (secondary goal)

Yerkes-Dodson law

facilitating anxiety

a mild amount of anxiety is normal and helps/energizes the learner

helpful when learner is proficient

anxiety and performance trends

easy task → others watching, increased anxiety (high arousal) = better performance

difficult task → others watching, increased anxiety (high arousal) = worse performance

critical threshold of debilitating anxiety

learning becomes a psychological threat to wellbeing

need clinical intervention

ongoing anxiety decreases ability to learn and focus

results were _______ with anxiety and performance studies

inconsistent

different people perform, differently with anxiety

inconsistent with self-reports

motivated reasoning

‘hot cognition’

interest in what is being learning = increased involvement, focus

flow

completely focused state

totally absorbed in activity

can still make mistakes but know how to move forward

feel in control

not judging yourself

positive emotions help with learning

negative emotions and learning

can sometimes be helpful

help to engage learner in the learning process

e.g. concern for childhood/post-secondary education

self-determination theory

choosing your own path/directing your learning increases motivation to learn

setting own goals = increased motivation to learn/achieve them

external pressure and learning

external pressure can decrease ability to choose your own path/make your own goals → decreases motivation to learn

autonomy and learning

more feelings of autonomy with learning = higher achievement, motivation

externally controlled motivation

= lower self-esteem, higher depression, anxiety, low autonomy

how motivation impacts learning

time spent learning/working on the task

amount of effort put in

types pf strategies chosen to complete task

focuses energy and effort to achieve the goal

encourages the initiation of tasks

how values the results are

overjustification effect

intrinsically motivated task becomes less enjoyable when rewarded extrinsically for it

less motivation, do the activity less than when it was only for personal pleasure, less interesting

‘undermining intrinsic motivation’

external reinforcement study

external reinforcement = increased monitoring = less autonomy

decreased brain activity in anterior striatum and prefrontal areas (reward centres) when monetary reward was taken away

intrinsic motivation

what we want

internal motivation, personal pleasure

associated with activities we choose for ourselves

fewer opportunities to focus on this

motivation in university students

lower ability to pursue what they want (intrinsic motivation)

high procrastination = lower motivation = less ‘flow’

types of passion

harmonious passion

obsessive passion

harmonious passion

activities in harmony with other aspects of life

have time to do others things

autonomy, self-determination, choose for yourself

higher dedication

lower cynicism

lower burnout

obsessive passion

commitment activity makes it so you do not have time for anything else

extrinsic motivation, more concerned with results

higher absorption

higher burnout

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

theories of motivation

consider biological and physiological impacts

physiological needs → safety and security → belongings and love needs → esteem needs → actualization

motivation in the Blackfoot nation

collectivist approach

wealth = giving away possessions → earned security in community

higher levels of life satisfaction and self-esteem

self-actualization was the norm - born self-actualized, exactly who you’re meant to be

niita’pitapi

self-actualization

need/want to become everything that you are capable of being

positive deviants

disproportionately wealthy

supported the community

gave away wealth

in Blackfoot nation

negative deviants

in Blackfoot nation

disproportionately unsuccessful/unlawful people

not supportive of the community

could redeem themselves

rehabilitation = opportunity for redemption/forgiveness

Breath of Life Theory

humans are part of an interconnected web

Indigenous knowledge gained with a relational worldview

gain knowledge from everything around us

Indigenous perspective of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

self-actualization → community actualization → cultural perpetuity

expansive concept of time and multiple dimensions of reality

cultural perpetuity

responsibility to pass on knowledge to the future generations

individual has impact from 7 generations in the past and on 7 generations in the future

area in brain for control

forsal anterior cingulate cortex

connectivity to prefrontal cortex

involved with control

lesion studies used to observe but hard to test

perceived task value

the worth that a task has

different for every individual

relies on motivation and personal interests

already valued activities = more value

more interest = more efficient

goal-setting theory

by Edward Tolman

learning can be goal directed

types of goal direct learning strategies

mastery goal

performance goal

work-avoidance goal

mastery goal

want to master a skill

acknowledgement from other not needed for learning

constructive feedback is helpful

interest in personal growth as basis to achieve success

performance goal

want to achieve goal to reach a certain status

learning process if not priority

do not want constructive feedback

focussing on ‘getting ahead’ not improvement of skill

work-avoidance goals

want to avoid failure

do not want to appear incompetent

no interest in actual success

social loafing

putting inless effort when working in a group than you would when working alone