Articles of Confederation to Constitutional Convention: U.S. Government

State constitutions after independence

States created their own written constitutions to establish government structures and define powers.

Property qualifications for voting

Requirements to own property before voting; intended to limit voting to people considered economically independent.

Republic vs. democracy

A republic governs through elected representatives; a democracy broadly means rule by the people.

Legislative branch

Makes laws.

Executive branch

Enforces laws.

Judicial branch

Interprets laws and resolves legal disputes.

John Dickinson

Helped draft the Articles of Confederation, adopted by Congress in 1777.

Articles of Confederation

The first national framework of government; created a weak central government and a single-house Congress.

Articles of Confederation: adoption and ratification

Congress adopted them in 1777; all 13 states ratified them by 1781.

Confederation Congress

The single-house national legislature under the Articles; each state had one vote.

National powers under the Articles

Make war and peace; negotiate treaties and alliances; manage Native American relations; set standards for coins, weights, and measures; operate the postal service.

State powers under the Articles

States retained major powers, including taxation and control of their militias.

Major weakness: taxation

Congress could not directly tax citizens and depended on states for money.

Major weakness: commerce

Congress lacked strong authority to regulate interstate and foreign commerce.

Major weakness: enforcement

Congress had no independent executive to enforce national laws.

Major weakness: courts

There was no comprehensive national judicial branch under the Articles.

Major weakness: amending the Articles

Changes required unanimous state approval.

Major weakness: passing laws

Important measures generally required approval from nine of the thirteen states.

Ratification dispute

Maryland delayed ratification while seeking a resolution to competing state claims over western lands.

Western land claims

States disagreed over who controlled land west of the Appalachian Mountains.

Thomas Jefferson

Associated with the Land Ordinance of 1784, which proposed a process for organizing western territories.

Land Ordinance of 1784

Proposed dividing western territory into smaller self-governing states.

Land Ordinance of 1785

Established a systematic survey and sale of western lands using townships and sections.

Township under the Land Ordinance of 1785

A surveyed area six miles square, divided into 36 sections.

Land Ordinance of 1787 / Northwest Ordinance

Established government and a path to statehood for the Northwest Territory; prohibited slavery there.

Northwest Territory: first stage

Congress appointed a governor, secretary, and three judges to govern the territory.

Northwest Territory: 5,000 free male inhabitants

Allowed eligible voters to elect a territorial legislature and send a nonvoting delegate to Congress.

Northwest Territory: 60,000 total population

Territory could draft a state constitution and apply for statehood.

Northwest Ordinance and slavery

Prohibited slavery in the Northwest Territory, although the ordinance did not eliminate slavery nationally.

Land Ordinance of 1790 / Southwest Ordinance

organized the federal lands south of the Ohio River, permitted slavery

Shays' Rebellion

Massachusetts uprising involving indebted farmers and opposition to taxes and debt collection; exposed weaknesses in the national government. 1786-1787

Daniel Shays

Former Revolutionary War officer associated with the Massachusetts rebellion against debt collection and courts.

Why Shays' Rebellion mattered

It alarmed national leaders and strengthened calls for a more effective central government.

Mount Vernon Conference

Meeting associated with resolving commercial and navigation disputes between Virginia and Maryland. 1785

Mount Vernon Conference date

March 21, 1785

Annapolis Convention

Meeting called to discuss interstate commerce; low attendance led delegates to recommend a broader convention. 1786

Annapolis Convention dates

September 11-14, 1786,

James Madison

Major advocate of a stronger national government; helped shape the Constitution and later wrote Federalist essays.

Constitutional Convention

Meeting in Philadelphia to address weaknesses in the Articles and develop a new framework of government. 1787

Constitutional Convention dates

May 25-September 17, 1787.

George Washington at the Constitutional Convention

Presided over the convention and lent it credibility and leadership.

Virginia Plan

Proposed a stronger national government with three branches and a two-house legislature based on population. May 29 1787

Edmund Randolph

Virginia governor who introduced the Virginia Plan.

Virginia Plan: legislature

Two houses, with representation based on population.

New Jersey Plan

Proposed retaining a structure closer to the Confederation Congress, protecting equal state representation. June 15 1787

New Jersey Plan: executive

Proposed a plural executive rather than a single president.

Virginia Plan vs. New Jersey Plan

The Virginia Plan favored population-based representation; the New Jersey Plan favored equal state representation.

Roger Sherman

Connecticut delegate who helped propose the Great Compromise.

Great Compromise / Connecticut Compromise

Created a two-house Congress: the House based on population and the Senate with equal state representation. 1787

House of Representatives

Lower chamber; representation based on state population; members serve two-year terms.

Senate

Upper chamber; each state has two senators; senators originally were selected by state legislatures and serve six-year terms.

President under the Constitution

Single executive with a four-year term, chosen through the Electoral College system.

Judicial branch under the Constitution

Federal courts interpret laws; Supreme Court justices hold office during good behavior, generally for life.

Electoral College

System through which electors formally choose the president.

Three-Fifths Clause

Counted three-fifths of the enslaved population for representation and direct