AP Psychology: Neurobiology Unit Study Guide Flashcards

Vocabulary study cards covering AP Psychology Neurobiology topics including neural transmission, brain anatomy, nervous system divisions, research methods, and the endocrine system.

Phrenology

An old and unscientific study that attempted to determine mental abilities and character traits by studying bumps on the skull.

Dendrites

The branching extensions of a neuron that receive chemical messages from other neurons and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

Soma / Cell Body

The central part of a neuron that contains the nucleus and maintains the life operations of the cell.

Axon

The elongated neuron extension that passes electrical impulses through its length away from the soma toward axon terminals.

Myelin Sheath / Glial Cells

A layer of fatty tissue insulating the axon to speed up transmission, supported by glial cells which nourish and protect neurons.

Axon Terminal / Terminal Buttons

The bulbous endpoints of an axon that store synaptic vesicles and release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.

Sensory Neurons

Afferent neurons that carry incoming information from sensory receptors to the central nervous system.

Interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and process information between sensory inputs and motor outputs.

Motor Neurons

Efferent neurons that carry outgoing instructions from the central nervous system to muscles and glands.

Reflex Arc

A simple neural pathway controlling an automatic, involuntary reflex response that bypasses direct processing by the brain.

Electrical Message

The neural impulse process occurring within a neuron, progressing through resting potential, depolarization, threshold, action potential, and refractory period.

Chemical Message

The mode of signal transmission between neurons occurring across the synapse through chemical messengers known as neurotransmitters.

Resting Potential

The resting, polarized electrical state of an inactive neuron's membrane prior to firing.

Depolarization

The inward flow of positively charged ions across the neuron membrane that reduces its negative charge toward the threshold.

Threshold

The minimum level of stimulation required to trigger an electrical action potential in a neuron.

Action Potential

A brief neural impulse or electrical charge that travels down the axon of a neuron.

All-or-Nothing Principle

The principle stating that a neuron fires completely or does not fire at all once threshold is reached.

Refractory Period

A brief resting pause after a neuron has fired during which another action potential cannot be initiated.

Synapse

The functional junction between the terminal button of a sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of a receiving neuron.

Synaptic Cleft

The tiny fluid-filled gap separating the presynaptic terminal button from the postsynaptic membrane.

Synaptic Vesicles

Small membrane-bound sacs in terminal buttons that store neurotransmitters for release into the synaptic cleft.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers released into the synaptic cleft that bind to receptor sites on a receiving neuron.

Receptor Sites

Specialized protein structures on the postsynaptic neuron membrane designed to bind specific neurotransmitters.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Chemical signals that depolarize the receiving neuron, increasing the likelihood of an action potential.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Chemical signals that hyperpolarize the receiving neuron, decreasing the likelihood of an action potential.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning, and memory; deficits in ACh are linked to Alzheimer's disease.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter influencing movement, learning, attention, and emotion; an excess of dopamine is linked to schizophrenia.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter affecting mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal; a deficit in serotonin is linked to clinical depression.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in controlling alertness, fight-or-flight responses, and arousal.

GABA

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter; a deficit in GABA is linked to anxiety disorders, tremors, and insomnia.

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory formation.

Endorphins

Opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure response.

Substance P

A neurotransmitter involved in the transmission of pain signals to the central nervous system.

Agonists and Antagonists

Chemical agents that alter neurotransmission; agonists mimic neurotransmitters to bind to receptor sites, whereas antagonists block neurotransmitters from binding.

Reuptake Inhibitors / Blockers

Drugs or chemicals that disrupt neurotransmission by preventing sending neurons from reabsorbing unused neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft.

Multiple Sclerosis

A neurological condition resulting from damage to the myelin sheath, causing disrupted neural communication.

Myasthenia Gravis

A chronic neuromuscular disorder characterized by weakness in skeletal muscles due to impaired acetylcholine signaling.

Central Nervous System

The central processing division of the nervous system consisting exclusively of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System

The division of the nervous system containing sensory and motor neurons connecting the central nervous system to the rest of the body.

Somatic Nervous System

The division of the peripheral nervous system controlling voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.

Autonomic Nervous System

The division of the peripheral nervous system controlling involuntary organ operations, subdivided into sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.

Sympathetic Division

The branch of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body and mobilizes energy in stressful situations.

Parasympathetic Division

The branch of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body and conserves energy.

Hindbrain

The posterior portion of the brain containing essential survival structures including the medulla, pons, and cerebellum.

Forebrain

The anterior brain region comprising high-level processing centers including the cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus, and limbic system.

Cerebrum

The largest region of the brain responsible for voluntary activity, thought, and sensory integration.

Four Lobes

The four main subdivisions of each cerebral hemisphere: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes.

Association Areas

Regions of the cerebral cortex involved in higher mental functions like learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

Cerebral Cortex

The thin outer layer of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebrum, serving as the body's ultimate control and processing center.

Prefrontal Cortex

The front portion of the frontal lobes responsible for executive functions, planning, decision-making, and personality expression.

Visual Cortex

The cortical area located in the occipital lobes responsible for processing visual input.

Motor Cortex

An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

Somatosensory Cortex

An area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

Broca's Area

A region in the left frontal lobe controlling language expression and muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's Area

A region in the left temporal lobe involved in language comprehension and expression.

Medulla

The base of the brainstem in the hindbrain controlling vital autonomic functions such as heartbeat and breathing.

Pons

A hindbrain structure situated above the medulla that plays a role in regulating sleep, movement, and facial expressions.

Reticular Formation / RAS

A nerve network traveling through the brainstem that plays an essential role in controlling arousal and alertness.

Cerebellum

The 'little brain' structure at the rear of the brainstem that coordinates movement, balance, and nonverbal learning.

Limbic System

A neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres associated with emotions, drives, and memory formation.

Thalamus

The brain's sensory control center located on top of the brainstem, directing sensory messages to the cortex (except smell).

Hypothalamus

A limbic structure located below the thalamus that regulates eating, drinking, body temperature, and governs the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.

Hippocampus

A neural structure in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for long-term storage.

Amygdala

Two small neural clusters in the limbic system linked directly to emotional processing, particularly fear and aggression.

Corpus Callosum

The wide band of axon fibers connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres, which carries messages between them.

Brain Plasticity

The brain's capacity to modify its structure and function in response to experience or following neural damage.

Split-Brain Patients

Individuals whose corpus callosum has been surgically severed, providing insights into hemispheric specialization.

Lesioning

A research technique involving surgical or experimental destruction of brain tissue to study behavioral changes.

EEG

An electroencephalogram that records electrical activity across the surface of the brain.

CT / CAT Scan

Computed tomography scan, a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined to show brain structure.

MRI Scan

Magnetic Resonance Imaging, a technique using magnetic fields and radio waves to produce high-resolution structural images of brain tissue.

fMRI Scan

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging, a technique revealing blood flow and brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans.

PET Scans

Positron Emission Tomography scans, a visual display of brain activity tracking radioactive glucose consumption while performing tasks.

Endocrine System

The body's chemical communication system consisting of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream.

Pituitary Gland

The 'master gland' of the endocrine system, controlled by the hypothalamus, which secretes hormones influencing growth and controlling other glands.

Hormones

Chemical messengers manufactured by endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream to affect other tissues.

Adrenaline

An endocrine hormone released in response to stress or danger that increases arousal and energy mobilization.

Oxytocin

An endocrine hormone that facilitates social bonding, trust, and physical affiliation.