Development Psyhc

Nature vs. nurture

How do nature and nurture influence the individual’s life story?

Continuity vs. stages

Which parts of development are gradual and which are abrupt steps?

Stability vs. change

What persists and what changes over time?

What is lifespan development?

Lifespan Development studies the growth and changes that occur in an individual across the lifespan – from birth to death

Maturation

the orderly sequence of biological growth that is relatively uninfluenced by experience.

Typical

what occurs with the vast majority of people

Atypical

abilities that occur in a very small number of the population

Longitudinal studies

collect data on a group at several time points

Cross-sectional studies

collect data on several different groups at the same time

Sequential studies

collect data on several different groups at the same time but also follow them over time, thus combining longitudinal and cross-sectional designs

Confounding variables

Variables other than the one being studied that influence your DV

Cohort effect

the era in which you grew up influences your beliefs, values, attitudes, and behavior

Attrition

the drop out rate of participants in a study

Heredity

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

Twin studies

• Comparing the two types of twins

• Comparing monozygotic twins raised together and raised apart

Adoption studies

You can use monozygotic twins reared apart but you can also use siblings who are adopted to one household and compare to siblings who are genetically related and raised within a household.

Epigenetics

the study of the molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression without a DNA change.

Conception

Sperm unites with an egg to create the zygote.

Embryo

• After 2 weeks, the zygote firmly attaches to the uterine wall.

• From about 2 weeks to 2 months

Fetus

After 2 months, all organs are formed.

Birth

Most full-term pregnancies end with the birth between 38 and 42 weeks

How does the brain develop from birth to adulthood?

Myelination and neuronal migration begin before birth. Neural networks grow rapidly after birth, especially in the frontal lobes (ages 3–6). By age 4, the brain is 80% of adult size. Development continues into early adulthood. Synaptic pruning slowly removes unused connections while preserving used ones; alcohol can increase this process.

Teratogens

agents (e.g., chemicals and viruses) that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.

Habituation

a decreased response to a stimulus the infant has encountered before.

Dishabituation

when your brain suddenly starts paying attention again to something you had completely gotten used to, usually because a new or surprising event happened

temperament

the inborn, biologically rooted behavioral and emotional style that shapes how a person reacts to the world

Piaget

children actively construct intelligence and worldview as they grow through four distinct, sequential stages of thinking

Assimilate

interpret new experiences in terms of existing schemata

Accommodate

adapting our current schemata to incorporate new information

Vygotsky

emphasized how the child’s mind grows through interaction with the social environment

Attachment

an emotional tie with another person

Separation anxiety

the distress reaction shown by babies when they are separated from their primary caregiver.

Eriksons

• Trust vs. Mistrust (0–1): Trusting caregivers.

• Autonomy vs. Shame (1–3): Gaining independence.

• Initiative vs. Guilt (3–6): Taking action and making choices.

• Industry vs. Inferiority (6–12): Developing skills and confidence.

• Identity vs. Role Confusion (Teens): Discovering who you are.

• Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adults): Building close relationships.

• Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adults): Helping others and contributing.

• Integrity vs. Despair (Older Adults): Feeling fulfilled or regretful about life.

Securely attached

In mother’s presence, fully explores. When mother initially leaves, displays mild distress but returns to happiness and exploration when mother returns.

Anxious

Fluctuates between happiness and anger toward mother. Clings to mother and does not really explore. May be fearful of strangers.

Avoidant

Generally, ignores mother.

Disorganized

Alternates between anxious and avoidant and appears more fearful of mother than affectionate.

Adolescence

the years spent morphing from child to adult

Gender identity

how one feels oneself to be internally and often involves an outward expression of this identity (e.g., clothes)

Sexual orientation

who an individual has a physical, sexual attraction to

Authoritarian

Coercive; rules imposed and obedience expected

Permissive

Unrestraining; make few demands, set few limits, and use little punishment

Negligent

Uninvolved; neither demanding nor responsive. Careless, inattentive, and do not seek a close relationship with offspring

Authoritative

Confrontive; both demanding and responsive; exert control by setting rules but encourage open discussion and allow exceptions

Preconventional

A focus on avoiding punishment or maximizing rewards

Conventional

The person values caring, trust, and relationships, as well as the social order and lawfulness.

Postconventional

The person recognizes universal moral rules over unjust or immoral local rules.

Dementia

pathological cognitive (and physical) decline

Dynamic systems theory

development is a self-organizing process, in which new forms of behavior emerge through consistent interactions between a biological being and cultural and environmental contexts.