AP Gov - Unit 2 (Ch. 4 & 6) Terms

Pork Barrel Spending

Government spending on projects that benefit a specific legislator's district or state, often to gain political support.

Logrolling

An informal agreement between legislators to support each other's bills, helping both pass legislation they favor.

Congressional Oversight

Congress's power to monitor and investigate executive branch agencies and programs to ensure laws are properly implemented.

Constituencies

The people a representative serves, usually the residents of their district or state. Representatives consider their constituents' needs when making decisions.

Apportionment

The distribution of the 435 seats in the House of Representatives among the states based on population, determined after each decennial census.

Redistricting

The process of redrawing congressional or state legislative district boundaries, usually after the census to account for population changes.

Gerrymandering

Drawing electoral district boundaries to unfairly benefit a political party or group, potentially weakening the voting power of opponents.

Incumbency

Holding an elected office currently. Incumbents often have advantages in reelection campaigns, such as name recognition, fundraising, and experience.

Speaker of the House

The presiding officer and top leader of the House of Representatives, usually from the majority party. Influences the legislative agenda and House proceedings.

Majority Leader

The leader of the majority party in a legislative chamber who helps organize party strategy and advance its legislative priorities.

Minority Leader

The leader of the minority party in a legislative chamber who organizes opposition and represents the party's priorities.

Whip

A party leader who counts votes, communicates party positions, and encourages members to support the party's legislative agenda.

President Pro Tempore

A senator, traditionally from the majority party, who presides over the Senate when the vice president is absent. Usually a largely ceremonial position held by a senior senator.

Committees

Groups of legislators that specialize in particular policy areas and review bills, hold hearings, conduct investigations, and oversee government activities.

Quorum

The minimum number of members who must be present for a legislative chamber or committee to conduct official business. In both the House and Senate, a majority constitutes a quorum.

Committee of the Whole

A procedure in which the House of Representatives operates under more flexible debate rules to consider legislation. All House members may participate, but a quorum is 100 members rather than the usual 218.

Filibuster

A Senate tactic used to delay or block action on a bill through extended debate or the threat of continued debate. Cloture generally requires 60 votes to end debate on legislation.

Entitlement Programs

Government programs that provide benefits to individuals who meet eligibility requirements established by law, such as Social Security and Medicare.

National Debt

The total amount of money the federal government owes from accumulated borrowing over time. It increases when the government borrows to cover budget deficits.

Partisan vs. Bipartisan

Partisan means supporting or acting according to one political party's interests. Bipartisan means involving cooperation or support from both major political parties.

Gridlock

A situation in which political disagreements or competing interests prevent government officials from passing laws or taking action.

Divided Government

A situation in which different political parties control the presidency and at least one chamber of Congress, potentially making cooperation more difficult.

Lame Duck Period

The period after an elected official has lost reelection or chosen not to run again but remains in office until the successor takes over. The official may have reduced political influence.

Lobbying

Attempts by individuals or interest groups to influence lawmakers and government officials through communication, research, advocacy, or other activities.

Justice

A judge serving on a court, especially the U.S. Supreme Court. Supreme Court justices interpret the Constitution and federal law and decide cases.

Supreme Court

The highest court in the United States. It has final authority on federal constitutional questions and hears cases through its original and appellate jurisdiction.

Original Jurisdiction

A court's authority to hear a case for the first time, rather than reviewing a lower court's decision.

Appellate Jurisdiction

A court's authority to review decisions made by lower courts to determine whether legal errors occurred.

Federalist #78

An essay by Alexander Hamilton defending the federal judiciary and judicial independence. It describes the judiciary as the least dangerous branch because it controls neither the purse nor the sword.

Judicial Review

The power of courts to determine whether laws or government actions violate the Constitution. Established at the federal level in Marbury v. Madison (1803).

Criminal Law

The body of law dealing with offenses against the public or government. Criminal cases involve prosecution and may result in penalties such as fines or imprisonment.

Civil Law

The body of law dealing with disputes between individuals, organizations, or other parties, often involving rights, contracts, or compensation.

Federal District Courts

Federal trial courts that hear evidence, determine facts, and decide many federal civil and criminal cases. They generally have original jurisdiction.

Federal Courts of Appeals

Federal courts that review decisions from district courts and certain federal agencies to determine whether legal errors occurred. They generally do not conduct new trials.

Precedent

A previous court decision used as a guide when deciding similar cases. Precedent promotes consistency and predictability in the law.

State Decisis

Likely a reference to Stare Decisis: the principle that courts generally follow established precedents when deciding similar cases. It promotes consistency in judicial decisions.

Majority Opinion

A written opinion expressing the decision and reasoning supported by a majority of the judges or justices participating in a case. It establishes the court's holding.

Concurring Opinion

A written opinion by a judge or justice who agrees with the court's result but offers different or additional reasoning.

Minority (Dissenting) Opinion

A written opinion by a judge or justice who disagrees with the majority's decision or reasoning. It may influence future legal arguments and decisions.

Judicial Restraint

The judicial philosophy that judges should generally defer to elected branches and avoid overturning laws unless there is a strong constitutional reason to do so.

Judicial Activism

A term often used for a judicial approach in which courts more readily strike down laws or overturn precedents. The term is contested and does not have one universally accepted definition.

Due Process

The constitutional requirement that the government respect legal rights and follow fair procedures before depriving a person of life, liberty, or property. Protected by the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments.

Juris Prudence

Likely a reference to Jurisprudence: the philosophy or study of law, including theories about how laws should be interpreted and applied.

Writ of Certiorari

An order by the Supreme Court agreeing to review a lower court's decision. At least four justices must vote to grant certiorari under the Rule of Four.

Jury of Peers

A jury drawn from the community that represents a fair cross-section of the population. The Sixth Amendment guarantees an impartial jury in criminal prosecutions, subject to constitutional requirements.

Grand Jury

A group of citizens that determines whether there is sufficient evidence to bring formal criminal charges. In federal felony cases, the Fifth Amendment generally requires a grand jury indictment.

En Banc

A court hearing in which all eligible judges of a court of appeals, rather than the usual smaller panel, consider a case. Used for selected cases of particular importance.

Indictment

A formal accusation charging someone with a crime, usually issued by a grand jury in federal cases. It is not a determination of guilt