Exam 3 Psychology Answered Study Guide

Drive (D)

Deprivation-related activation that energizes behavior.

Habit Strength (H)

Learned response tendency based on past reinforcement.

Incentive Value (K)

Motivational value of a reward that increases response vigor.

If reward magnitude increases but deprivation stays the same, what changes?

Incentive value (K) increases, increasing response vigor.

Positive Incentive Contrast

Increased responding when an outcome exceeds previous reward expectations.

Negative Incentive Contrast

Reduced responding when an established reward is decreased.

Hull-Spence Anticipatory Goal Response (rg)

Learned expectation of reaching a goal.

Hull-Spence Anticipatory Stimulus (sg)

Internal sensory feedback from rg that guides behavior.

Amsel's Frustration Theory

Persistence develops because frustration from nonreward becomes associated with continuing the response.

Mowrer's Emotional Signals

Anticipatory emotions generated by cues predicting positive or negative outcomes.

Relief (Mowrer)

Emotion experienced when an expected threat is removed.

Tolman's Cognitive Maps

Mental representations of environmental relationships that support flexible navigation.

Predictability in Motivation

Reliable signals reduce uncertainty and organize behavior.

Bindra's Incentive-Activation Model

Incentive cues can motivate behavior even without physiological deprivation.

Klinger on Meaningful Goals

Goals provide purpose and help organize identity.

Goal Disengagement Phases (Klinger)

Invigoration, primitivization, aggression, depression, recovery.

How can incentive cues contribute to addiction?

Reward-associated cues gain excessive motivational power and trigger craving.

Hedonic Value

The pleasure or unpleasantness associated with an experience.

How do pleasant experiences influence behavior?

They promote approach and repetition.

How do unpleasant experiences influence behavior?

They promote avoidance.

P.T. Young's Hedonic Sign Dimension

Whether an experience is pleasant or unpleasant.

P.T. Young's Hedonic Intensity Dimension

Strength of the emotional experience.

P.T. Young's Hedonic Duration Dimension

Length of time the emotion lasts.

Contact Receptors

Receptors such as touch and taste requiring direct interaction.

Distance Receptors

Receptors detecting stimuli before physical contact.

Motivational Role of Contact Receptors

Provide immediate evaluation of stimuli.

Motivational Role of Distance Receptors

Support anticipation and preparation before contact.

Optimal Stimulation Theory

People seek stimulation when bored and reduce stimulation when overstimulated.

Curiosity

Motivation to acquire information and understanding.

Sensation Seeking

Desire for novel, varied, or intense experiences.

Findings of Sensory and Social Deprivation Studies

Stimulation and social interaction are critical for development.

Contact Comfort

Comfort from physical softness and security that promotes attachment.

Why can attachment occur without feeding?

Contact comfort itself serves as a motivator.

Opponent-Process Theory

Repeated emotional experiences strengthen opposing emotional reactions.

Opponent-Process Theory and Substance Use

Relief from negative aftereffects motivates continued use.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without immediate reinforcement.

Tolman's View of Performance

Learned knowledge may not appear until incentives are introduced.

Lewin's Life Space

A person's perceived psychological environment.

Valence (Lewin)

Positive or negative attractiveness of a goal.

Competing Forces (Lewin)

Opposing motivational influences that create conflict.

Tension Reduction (Lewin)

Motivation to reduce psychological tension.

Expectancy-Value Theory

Motivation depends on both expected success and outcome value.

Rotter's Expectancy

Belief that a behavior will lead to reinforcement.

Rotter's Reinforcement Value

Desirability of a potential outcome.

Rotter's Behavior Potential

Likelihood of performing a behavior in a given situation.

Atkinson's Achievement Motivation Formula

Motive × Probability of Success × Incentive Value of Success.

Why are moderately difficult tasks often most motivating?

They balance probability of success and incentive value.

Why do people fearing failure choose very easy tasks?

Failure is unlikely.

Why do people fearing failure choose nearly impossible tasks?

Failure reflects less on personal ability.

Weiner's Locus Dimension

Whether a cause is internal or external.

Weiner's Stability Dimension

Whether a cause is stable or unstable over time.

Weiner's Controllability Dimension

Whether a cause can be controlled.

Internal, Unstable, Controllable Example

A student's preparation effort before an exam.

Ajzen's Attitudes

Evaluation of a behavior.

Ajzen's Subjective Norms

Perceived social expectations.

Ajzen's Perceived Behavioral Control

Perceived ability and opportunity to perform a behavior.

What is the Intention-Behavior Gap?

When intentions fail to result in action.

Ways to Reduce the Intention-Behavior Gap

Action plans, reminders, backup plans, and reducing barriers.

Social Loafing

Reduced effort when individual contributions are not identifiable.

How can Social Loafing be reduced?

Accountability, clear responsibilities, and feedback.

Heider's P-O-X Model

Theory explaining balanced and imbalanced relationships among person, other, and object.

How is imbalance restored in Heider's model?

By changing an attitude or relationship.

Cognitive Dissonance

Psychological discomfort caused by inconsistency between beliefs and behavior.

Three Ways to Reduce Cognitive Dissonance

Change behavior, change beliefs, add justifying cognitions.

Induced Compliance Effect

Acting against beliefs with little external justification can increase attitude change.

Effort Justification

Tendency to value outcomes more when significant effort was required.

Postdecisional Dissonance

Discomfort after making a difficult choice.

Selective Exposure

Seeking information that supports existing beliefs while avoiding contradictory information.

Cognitive Dissonance vs. Self-Perception Theory

Dissonance involves discomfort; self-perception involves inferring attitudes from behavior.

Social Facilitation

Improved performance on well-learned tasks in the presence of others.

Social Inhibition

Worse performance on difficult or unfamiliar tasks in the presence of others.

Dominant Response

Most likely response in a given situation.

Informational Conformity

Conforming because others are seen as a source of accurate information.

Normative Conformity

Conforming to gain approval or avoid rejection.

Factors That Increase Conformity

Unanimity, larger group size, and ambiguity.

Conformity

Matching behavior to a group's behavior.

Compliance

Agreeing to a request.

Obedience

Following orders from an authority figure.

Steps of Bystander Intervention

Notice, interpret, take responsibility, know how to help, act.

Diffusion of Responsibility

Reduced likelihood of helping when others are present.

How can diffusion of responsibility be reduced?

Assign a specific person to help.

Addiction and Learned Incentive Cues

Reward-associated cues trigger craving and dominate attention over other goals.