Functionalism , Marxism and Feminism

What is the main functionalist view of religion?

Religion performs important functions that help maintain social order and stability.

How does Durkheim argue that religion creates social integration?

Shared religious beliefs and rituals bring people together and create a sense of belonging to the same society.

What is the collective conscience?

The collective conscience is society’s shared awareness of what is right and wrong. Religion helps create and reinforce it through shared moral beliefs.

How does religion promote social stability according to Durkheim?

Religion socialises individuals into shared moral values, making people more likely to follow society’s norms and reducing social conflict.

What is totemism?

Totemism is a form of religion in which a group worships a sacred object or symbol, often representing an animal, plant or spirit.

Why did Durkheim study Aboriginal totemism?

He saw it as a simple and basic form of religion that could help reveal the essential functions of religion in society.

How did totemism create social solidarity?

Clans gathered together for shared rituals around the totem. These collective activities strengthened bonds and reaffirmed group identity.

What are the sacred and the profane?

The sacred refers to things given special holy meaning and separated from everyday life, while the profane refers to ordinary, mundane activities and objects.

What does Durkheim mean when he says people are really worshipping society?

The qualities represented by the totem reflect the qualities of the clan itself, so worshipping the totem is effectively worshipping the group and its shared identity.

Why was Durkheim concerned about rapid social change?

He believed rapid change could weaken shared norms and values, producing anomie and potentially social disorder.

What is a criticism of Durkheim’s evidence on totemism?

The evidence he used to support his conclusions about Aboriginal totemism has been criticised as unreliable or shaky.

Why is Durkheim’s theory difficult to generalise?

His research focused on small Aboriginal groups, often consisting of only around 10 to 30 people, which makes applying it to large modern societies difficult.

How might religious conflict challenge Durkheim’s theory?

Conflict between different religions, or within religions, suggests that religion does not always create social integration.

What is the postmodernist criticism of Durkheim?

Postmodernists argue that modern societies are fragmented and diverse, making a single shared value system less likely.

What does Malinowski argue about the role of religion?

Religion helps people cope with fear of death, uncertainty and major crises in their lives.

What did Malinowski find about lagoon fishing?

Lagoon fishing was relatively safe, so the islanders did not use the same religious rituals before doing it.

What did Malinowski find about ocean fishing?

Ocean fishing was dangerous and uncertain, so islanders performed rituals and prayers before going out.

What does Parsons argue about religion?

Religion helps people cope with unforeseen events and provides security, meaning and explanations for difficult experiences.

What is civil religion according to Bellah?

Civil religion is a form of secular or non-religious religion in which society or the state is given religious-like beliefs, symbols, rituals and sacred sites.

What examples does Bellah give of American civil religion?

Examples include the Lincoln Memorial, the Pledge of Allegiance, the national anthem, the Stars and Stripes, the Declaration of Independence and Independence Day.

Why could civil religion create social integration?

It provides shared symbols and rituals that people from different religious backgrounds can participate in, helping create a common identity.

Why does civil religion conflict with substantive definitions of religion?

Substantive definitions usually require belief in the supernatural, whereas civil religion can exist without belief in a supernatural being.

What is Marx’s view of religion?

Marx sees religion as part of the dominant ideology that helps maintain the power and interests of the ruling class.

What does Marx mean by false class consciousness?

Religion encourages workers to accept their unequal position as normal, natural or inevitable rather than recognising that capitalism can be changed.

Why does Marx describe religion as an opium of the people?

Religion cushions the pain of oppression and exploitation by giving people comfort and hope instead of encouraging them to challenge inequality.

How does the promise of an afterlife support Marx’s argument?

Religion can encourage oppressed people to accept suffering in this life by promising happiness and equality after death.

What is the Divine Right of Kings?

It is the belief that monarchs rule because they have been appointed or chosen by God, making opposition to the ruler appear like opposition to God.

What is Althusser’s RSA?

The Repressive State Apparatus consists of institutions such as the police, army and courts that maintain order through the legitimate use of force.

What is Althusser’s ISA?

The Ideological State Apparatus controls ideas, values and beliefs through institutions such as education, the mass media and religion.

Why is religion an ISA according to Althusser?

Religion spreads beliefs that legitimise existing class inequalities and encourages people to accept their position in society.

What is a criticism of the Marxist view of religion based on secularisation?

If fewer people participate in religion, it becomes less convincing to argue that religion is successfully controlling the working class.

How does Marxism ignore positive functions of religion?

Marxists focus on religion as an instrument of control but may overlook the emotional support, meaning and social integration religion can provide.

What do neo-Marxists argue about religion?

Neo-Marxists argue that religion can sometimes be used against the ruling class and can become a force for social change.

What is Gramsci’s view of religion?

Gramsci argues that religion has a dual character and can sometimes be taken over or influenced by workers and used to challenge ruling-class power.

What is the feminist view of religion?

Feminists argue that religion can be a patriarchal institution that reflects and reinforces male domination over women.

Why do feminists argue that many religions are patriarchal?

Male gods, male-dominated religious texts and male religious leaders are common across many major religions, giving men greater religious authority.

How can religious creation stories reinforce patriarchy?

The story of Adam and Eve can be interpreted as presenting Eve negatively because she disobeys God and persuades Adam to eat the forbidden fruit.

How are women restricted from religious leadership?

In some religious traditions women cannot become priests, bishops, rabbis or hold equivalent senior religious roles.

What does de Beauvoir argue about religion?

De Beauvoir argues that religion can compensate women for their lower status in this life by promising equality in heaven.

What does Nawal El Saadawi argue about religion?

El Saadawi argues that women can be oppressed by male interpretations of religious texts, particularly in some Arab societies.

What example does El Saadawi use?

She argues that female genital mutilation has no basis in the Quran but can be justified through male interpretations of religion.

How does El Saadawi show that religion is not always oppressive?

She argues that some aspects of Islam can be liberating, such as women retaining their own surnames after marriage in some contexts.

What does Linda Woodhead argue about religion and women?

Woodhead argues that religion is not always patriarchal because women can use religion to gain status, respect and greater control over their lives.

How can the hijab be interpreted as resistance according to Woodhead?

The hijab can act as a form of protection from the male gaze and sexual objectification, rather than simply being a symbol of oppression.

How can religion give women greater status in the home?

Some religious traditions encourage men to respect women’s roles within the family and give those roles greater social value.

What evidence suggests that some religions are becoming less patriarchal?

Women have gained leadership roles in movements such as the Church of England, Reform Judaism, Sikhism and some Pentecostal movements.

What evidence challenges the idea that all religions are patriarchal?

Some ancient religions had important female goddesses, while some modern religious movements were founded by women or allow women to take leadership roles.