Ch. 15: State Building and the Search for Order in the 17th C.

Malleus Maleficarum

Written by Jacob Spengler and Heinrich Kramer, illustrated their findings about witchcraft and was a standard handbook on the practices of witchcraft and the best methods to find and try witches

Thirty Years’ War

Also known as the “last of the religious wars”, this was a 30 year conflict fought over both religious tensions between Catholics and Calvinists but was also largely influenced by political motives between the French and the Habsburg dynasties of Spain and the HRE

• Mostly took place in the Germanic lands of the HRE, but was a Europe wide war

Protestant Union

League of German Protestant states formed by Frederick IV

Catholic League

Formed in response to the Protestant Union, this was a collection of German Catholic states

HRE Ferdinand II (Archduke)

Catholic, begins as the king of Bohemia but is overthrown by the Calvinist nobles in 1618. Later becomes Holy Roman Emperor and re-establishes himself as king of Bohemia.

The Bohemian Phase (1618-1625)

First phase of the Thirty Years’ War

• Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand is overthrown by Calvinist rebels

• With the help of the Catholic League and Spain (Catholic), seemingly arise as victorious in this phase after kicking out Frederick and establishing Catholicism as the sole religion of Bohemia

Frederick V of the Palatinate

Elected by the Calvinist nobles as a replacement for Ferdinand, also was the head of the Protestant Union

The Danish Phase (1625-29)

Second phase of the Thirty Years’ War

• Begins when King Christian IV of Denmark invades Northern Germany

• Ferdinand and brilliant general Albrecht von Wallenstein are able to defeat Christian’s forces

• Ushers in the height of Ferdinand II’s power as he issues the Edict of Restitution

• This only scares the Germany princes who fear a loss of their sovereignty

Christian IV of Denmark

Lutheran king of Denmark, leads an army into Northern Germany but is defeated by the Catholic League and Albrecht von Wallenstein (commander for Ferdinand)

Edict of Restitution (1629)

Issued after the end of the Danish Phase, prohibited Calvinist worship and restored all Protestant property back to the Catholic Church

The Swedish Phase (1630-1635)

Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden invades northern Germany as a devout Lutheran

• His army is successful in sweeping the imperial forces out of northern Germany, but he is killed in battle

• Ferdinand successfully fights back and southern Germany remains Catholic

• HRE attempts to make peace with the German princes by annuling the Edict of Restitution, but the Swedes get the help of the French

Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden

King of Sweden, a devout Lutheran that invades northern Germany but is killed in battle

Cardinal Richelieu

Chief minister of King Louis XIII, carries significant control over France

Peace of Westphalia (1648)

Officially ends the Thirty Years’ War, allows all German states to have the ability to determine their own religion

Effects of the Thirty Years’ War

• Peace of Westphalia guarantees that German states can determine their own religion

• France gains territory in parts of Western Germany

• Swedish gain some territory in Germany

• Habsburgs don’t lose any territory, but see their authority as diminished as the emperor becomes more a figurehead

• Politics and religion begin to separate as politics becomes the primary focus of public affairs

• Some areas of Germany become devastated, a damaged economy

• Population decline of 15-20%

• Military: more focus on conscription and standing armies, increased use of firearms, heavier taxes to raise money for war

Absolutism

Where the ultimate authority and sovereign power of a state lies in the hands of a monarch who claims to rule by divine right

Jean Bodin

Political theorist who believed that “sovereign power” meant the authority to make laws, tax, administer justice, control the state’s administrative system, and determine foreign policy

Divine-right monarchy

The idea that since kings received their power from God, their authority was absolute and did not need to respond to anyone except for God

Bishop Jacques Bossuet

French theologian

• Wrote Politics Drawn from the Very Words of Holy Scripture

• Claimed that God ruled through kings

• Did not just believe that kings held a lot of power, but also that since God would hold kings responsible for their actions, kings faced serious responsibilities and limits on their power

Louis XIII of France

Ascends to the throne at an extremely young age, thus France is largely governed by Cardinal Richelieu

Intendants

Developed by Richelieu, intendants were royal officials that were sent out to the French provinces to execute the orders of the central government

Taille

annual direct tax levied on land or property

Cardinal Mazarin

Chief minister when Louis XIV was young, he continued many of Richelieu’s policies

The Fronde

Revolt of the nobles against the central authority due to their own loss of power

• In conjunction with members of the Parlement

• Their aims were to regain their power

Louis XIV of France

Longest ruling monarch (1643-1715), was able to successfully centralize power in France

Parlements

French provincial law courts that were responsible for registering new laws sent by the king

Edict of Fontainebleau (1685)

Issued by Louis XIV, revokes the Edict of Nantes and provided for the destruction of Huguenot churches and the closing of Protestant schools

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

Controller general of finances for Louis XIV. Some of his policies included:

• General adherence to mercantilism (more exports than imports)

• New luxury industries

• Improving transportation of goods

• Raising tariffs on foreign manufactured goods

• Explorations to the New World

Palace of Versailles

An enormous palace built by Louis XIV in Versailles. Served the purpose of where Louis lived, reception hall for state affairs, office building for the members of the king’s governments

• Most important, it helped Louis control the nobility by keeping them distracted at all times

• Visible manifestation of France’s wealth and was intended to impress foreign powers

War of the Spanish Succession

Louis XIV’s fourth war

• Started when the throne was given to one of Louis’s grandsons, other states feared Spain and France joining together

• Coalition of England, the United Provinces, the Habsburg in Austria, and German states oppose France and Spain for 11 years

Peace of Utrecht (1713)

Ends the War of Spanish Succession and confirmed Philip V as the Spanish ruler

• Affirms that the thrones of Spain and France will remain separate

Philip III of Spain

Spent a fortune, leaving Spain financially weak and allowed a greedy aristocrat to run Spain

• Many crucial problems in Spain went unsolved as important offices weren’t filled with qualified people

Philip IV of Spain

Attempted to revive Spain along with Gaspar de Guzman, but was met with little success due to the power of the Spanish aristocrats

• Ruled over Spain during the Thirty Years’ War which incited internal revolts and years of civil war

Gaspar de Guzman, Count of Olivares

Chief minister of Philip IV, attempted to revive the monarchy through reform decrees, curtailing the power of the Catholic Church and the aristocracy, but had little success

Hohenzollern dynasty

Dynasty responsible for turning Brandenburg-Prussia into a powerful state by connecting several German states

Frederick William the Great Elector

Came to power during the Thirty Years’ War, laid the foundation for Prussia through strengthening the army, developing efficient ways of controlling the nobility, following mercantilist policies

Leopold I of Austria

Helped the Austrian empire expand eastward but was challenged by the Ottomans. Helped the Austrian empire establish dominance in eastern and southeastern Europe

• Austria gains control over parts of Italy

Ivan IV the Terrible of Russia

Rules in the 16th century, is the first to take the title of “tsar”

• Extends Russia eastward

• Crushes the power of the Russian nobility (boyars)

Peter the Great of Russia

(1689-1725), ruled over Russia and attempted to make it a new power by Westernizing it

• Primarily focused on making Russia a military power

Table of Ranks

Instituted by Peter the Great, was an opportunity for non-nobles to work his way up military offices in order to achieve a nobility status

Holy Synod

Peter’s attempt to control the Russian Orthodox Church

• Was a body that made decisions for the church and at the top of it was a layman who represented the interests of the tsar

Peace of Nystadt (1721)

Ended Russia’s war against the Swedish as Peter wanted to assert Russian control of the Baltic region

• Gave Russia more territory, signified Sweden as a second-rate power and Russia as a great European state

Charles XI of Sweden

Built the Swedish monarchy along the lines of an absolutist state, retook control of the lands of the nobility, built up a bureaucracy, limited the church, and improved the navy and army

Jagiello dynasty

United Poland and Lithuania which was the largest kingdom in Christendom

Sigismund III of Poland-Lithuania

Swedish, ruled from 1587 to 1631 and dreamed of creating a vast Polish empire

Polish Sejm

Polish two-chamber assembly that was completely dominated by landowners

• Shared power with the monarchy regarding taxation, foreign and military policy, and appointment of state officials and judges

Stadholder

An official for each Dutch province that was responsible for leading the army and maintaining order

William III of Orange

In 1672, facing wars with England and France, the United Provinces turned to William III of Orange to establish monarchical rule but after his death, and republican forces dominated the government once again

Amsterdam

Financial and commercial capital of Europe

• Rapid urban expansion to allow for more residents

• Vast fleets of ships by Amsterdam merchants

• Amsterdam became the crossroads for the exchange of Europe’s chief products

• Importance as a financial center

James I of England

Successor of Elizabeth, alienated the monarchy from Parliament and the Puritans

• Espoused divine right by God, Parliament wanted to work in tandem

• Angered the Puritans as James refused to install a Presbyterian model of church organization because he wanted the favor of the bishops

Puritans

Protestants in the Anglican Church that were specifically inspired by Calvinist ideology, wanted to completely purify the Anglican Church of Catholicism

Charles I of England

Son of James I, exacerbated existing tensions with Parliament which led to the English Civil War

Petition of Right

Decreed by Parliament tin 1628, prohibited taxation without Parliament’s consent, arbitrary imprisonment, quartering of soldiers, and declaration of martial law in peacetime

• Charles needed to accept this before being granted tax revenues

Archbishop William Laud

Archbishop of Canterbury, attempted to impose the Anglican Book of Common Prayer on the Scottish Presbyterian Church

• Viewed as trying to return to Catholic popery

Long Parliament

Lasted in one form or another from 1640-1660, called by Charles I after 11 years of refusing to call Parliament due to Scottish discontent

• Placed restrictions on royal authority

New Model Army

Composed primarily of more extreme Puritans (called Independents), contributed to the success of Parliament during the first phase of the English Civil War

Oliver Cromwell

One of the leaders of the New Model Army, later was unable to cooperate with Parliament and came to rely on military force to rule England

Rump Parliament

After Cromwell was victorious, the Presbyterian members of Parliament were purged and left only the radical members

• Abolished the monarchy

Levellers

Radical group in England that opposed Cromwell

• Advocated for “advanced” ideas like freedom of speech, religious toleration, democratic republic, right to vote for male householders over 21, annual Parliaments, women’s equality

Charles II of England

Eldest son of Charles I, was reinstated as the English monarch after Cromwell’s death

Whigs

Political group that wanted to exclude James from succession and establish a Protestant king with toleration of dissenters

Tories

Supported the rule of the king, did not believe Parliament should tamper with lawful succession of the throne

James II

Brother of Charles II, was openly Catholic and attempted to further Catholic interests after ascension to the throne

• Naming Catholics to high positions

Glorious Revolution

Overthrow of James II when William of Orange and Mary were invited to invade England against James

• Issue became of who would be the monarch

William and Mary

William of Orange was the husband of James’s daughter Mary, invited by English noblemen, would become the new monarchs of England

Bill of Rights (1689)

Had to be accepted by William and Mary to obtain the throne, affirmed Parliament’s right to make laws and levy taxes

• Kings could not oppose Parliament or get rid of it

• Rights of citizens were also confirmed

• Helped fashion a government based on rule of law

Toleration Act (1689)

Granted Puritan Dissenters the right of free public worship - wasn’t complete religious freedom, but did indicate that few people would be persecuted for religious reasons

Thomas Hobbes

English political thinker who claimed that human nature was inherently brutish, bad, short, thus the need for a sovereign authority in the form of a single ruler who possessed unlimited power

John Locke

English political thinker that claimed humans were inherently good, proponent that humans had certain inalienable natural rights such as life, liberty, and property

• Idea that governments had the responsibility to protect the people, but if the government failed to do so, the people could create a new government

Mannerism

Style between the High Renaissance and the Baroque Period, focused on the intense emotions and spiritual experiences of the time period

• Portrayed the anxiety, uncertainty, suffering in this period

El Greco

Prominent example of Mannerism - church painter who used eerie backgrounds and colors to reflect a world of intense emotion

Baroque

Period after Mannerism that focused on fusing classical ideals of Renaissance art with the spiritual feelings of the 16th century religious revival - used dramatic effects to arouse emotions

Peter Paul Rubens

Baroque painter, used bodies in violent motion, heavily fleshed nudes, dramatic light and shadow, and rich pigments to express intense emotions

Gian Lorenzo Bernini

Baroque architect and sculptor, completed Saint Peter’s Basilica at the Vatican

Artemisia Gentileschi

Baroque female painter, known for a series of pictures of heroines from the Old Testament

French classicism

Not as showy and impassioned as the Baroque Period, emphasized clarity, simplicity, balance, and harmony of design

• Ideas reflected French society going from chaos to ordered

• Continued Baroque ideas of grandeur

Dutch realism

As Dutch commerce flourished, realistic paintings were commissioned by wealthy patrons to portray themselves, the scenery, and a realistic portrayal of secular everyday life

Rembrandt van Rijn

Dutch painter, painted grandiose and colorful scenes of largely scenes from biblical tales

• One great Protestant painter of the 17th century

William Shakespeare

English playwright, flourished in the Elizabethan era

• Exhibited a remarkable understanding of the human condition

• Plays reflected the patriotic enthusiasm of the English in the Elizabethan era