Unit 2 Gov

Separation of powers

Government power divided among legislative, executive, and judicial branches.

Checks and balances

Each branch has powers that can limit the other branches.

Bicameral Congress

Two chambers: House of Representatives and Senate.

House of Representatives

435 voting members; 2-year terms; representation based on population.

Senate

100 members; 2 per state; staggered 6-year terms.

Staggered terms

Only about one-third of senators face regular election every two years.

House minimum qualifications

Age 25; U.S. citizen 7 years; inhabitant of represented state.

Senate minimum qualifications

Age 30; U.S. citizen 9 years; inhabitant of represented state.

Enumerated powers

Powers explicitly written in the Constitution.

Implied powers

Powers reasonably inferred from enumerated powers and Necessary and Proper Clause.

Necessary and Proper Clause

Article I Section 8 Clause 18; authorizes laws to execute enumerated powers.

Commerce Clause

Article I Section 8 Clause 3; Congress regulates interstate and foreign commerce.

Power of the purse

Congress controls federal funding through appropriations.

Congressional oversight

Monitoring and investigating how executive agencies implement laws.

House impeachment power

House votes to impeach federal civil officers; Senate conducts trial.

Senate confirmation

Senate approves or rejects certain presidential nominees; generally simple majority.

Treaty approval

Two-thirds of senators present must consent before presidential ratification.

Cloture

Procedure to end Senate debate; normally needs 60 senators for legislation.

Filibuster

Senate tactic to delay or block action through extended debate or procedural obstacles.

Hold

Senator asks leadership to delay consideration of a measure or nomination.

Unanimous consent

Senate procedure allowing action if no senator objects.

House Rules Committee

Sets terms and limits of House floor debate on bills.

Standing committee

Permanent congressional committee dealing with a policy area.

Select committee

Committee formed for a specific purpose, often temporary.

Joint committee

Committee with members from both House and Senate.

Conference committee

Negotiates one final bill from differing House and Senate versions.

Discharge petition

House procedure to bring bill out of committee by majority signatures.

Logrolling

Lawmakers trade support for each other’s proposals.

Pork-barrel spending

Funding for localized projects benefiting specific districts or states.

Mandatory spending

Spending required by existing law, such as Social Security benefits.

Discretionary spending

Spending set through the regular annual appropriations process.

Budget deficit

Federal spending exceeds revenue in a fiscal year.

National debt

Total outstanding federal borrowing over time.

Reapportionment

Redistributing House seats among states after decennial census.

Redistricting

Redrawing district boundaries within a state.

Gerrymandering

Drawing voting districts for partisan or other political advantage.

Packing

Concentrating opposing voters in a small number of districts.

Cracking

Spreading opposing voters across many districts to dilute votes.

Trustee model

Representative follows independent judgment.

Delegate model

Representative follows constituent preferences.

Politico model

Representative combines delegate and trustee approaches.

Partisan voting

Legislator votes primarily based on party affiliation.

Polarization

Political views move further apart along ideological lines.

Gridlock

Policy action stalls because consensus or cooperation is absent.

Divided government

President’s party does not control at least one chamber of Congress.

Article II

Constitutional article establishing executive branch and presidential powers.

Chief executive

President responsible for carrying out federal laws.

Commander in Chief

President directs the U.S. armed forces.

Formal presidential powers

Powers explicitly granted to president by Constitution.

Informal presidential powers

Tools developed through practice, precedent, and political influence.

Veto override

Two-thirds vote in both House and Senate to overcome presidential veto.

Pocket veto

Bill fails when president does not sign and adjournment prevents return during 10-day window.

Executive order

Presidential directive to executive branch based on existing legal authority.

Executive agreement

International agreement made outside Article II treaty-consent process.

Signing statement

President’s explanation of interpretation when signing legislation.

Bully pulpit

Use presidential visibility to shape opinion and pressure policymakers.

State of the Union

President reports national conditions and recommends policy agenda to Congress.

Office of Management and Budget (OMB)

Executive Office agency preparing president’s budget proposal.

National Security Council (NSC)

Advises president on national security and foreign policy.

Council of Economic Advisers (CEA)

Provides economic advice to the president.

Federalist No. 70

Hamilton argues one energetic executive enables decisiveness and accountability.

22nd Amendment

Limits presidential election to two terms, with succession-related exception.

Article III

Constitutional article establishing judicial branch and federal judicial authority.

Judicial review

Court power to rule laws or government actions unconstitutional.

Original jurisdiction

Authority to hear a case first.

Appellate jurisdiction

Authority to review a lower court decision.

Federalist No. 78

Hamilton argues independent judiciary and life tenure protect constitutional rule.

Precedent

Earlier judicial decision guiding later similar cases.

Stare decisis

Principle of generally following past judicial precedents.

Judicial restraint

Approach emphasizing limited judicial intervention and respect for precedent.

Judicial activism

Term for more assertive judicial intervention or policy-changing rulings.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

Established judicial review after dispute over undelivered commission.

Baker v. Carr (1962)

Federal courts may hear legislative apportionment equal-protection challenges.

Shaw v. Reno (1993)

Racial gerrymandering can trigger Fourteenth Amendment Equal Protection scrutiny.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Implied federal powers upheld; state cannot undermine national bank through tax.

United States v. Lopez (1995)

Limited congressional Commerce Clause reach over gun-free-school-zone law.

14th Amendment Equal Protection

States must provide equal protection of laws; central to Baker and Shaw.

Federal bureaucracy

Executive agencies and officials that implement federal laws and programs.

Discretionary authority

Agency power to make implementation choices within delegated legal limits.

Rulemaking

Agency develops specific regulations authorized by statute.

Implementation

Agency puts laws and public policy into operation.

Regulation

Agency rule adopted under authority of legislation.

Statute

Written law enacted by a legislature.

Iron triangle

Stable relationship among agency, congressional committee, and interest group.

Issue network

Broader, fluid set of policy experts, groups, officials, and legislators.

Patronage

Awarding government employment for political loyalty.

Merit system

Hiring or promoting based on qualifications and job performance.

Pendleton Act (1883)

Established foundation for merit-based federal civil service.

Hatch Act (1939)

Restricts certain partisan political activities of federal workers.

Compliance monitoring

Checking whether regulated parties follow legal requirements.

Red tape

Burdensome bureaucratic rules or procedures.