ATAR PSYCH 3/4

Human Nervous System

a complex, highly organised network of specialised cells that enables the brain to receive info about what is going on from both inside and outside the body and to respond appropriately.

Human nervous system functions

• receive information

• process information

• coordinate a response to information

Central Nervous System (CNS)

carries messages to and from the PNS

• brain (responsible for virtually everything we think, feel and do

• spinal cord (connects the brain and PNS: initiate spinal reflexes)

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) 

Carries messages to and from the CNS

somatic nervous system in the PNS

Carries messages from sensory receptors in the body to the CNS, and motor messages from the CNS to skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system in the PNS

connects CNS to internal organs and glands : self-regulating

Sympathetic nervous system in the PNS

Prepares body for action

Parasympathetic nervous system in the PNS

Calms body after action

Enteric nervous system in the PNS

Dedicated to the functioning of the gastrointestinal (digestive) tract

Spinal Reflexes

an unconscious, automatic response controlled solely by neural circuits in the spinal cord

How do Neurons communicate?

by sending a neurotransmitter across the space between the terminal buttons of one neuron

Neurotransmitters are a…

chemical substance produced by a neuron that carries a message to other neurons or cells in muscles, organs or other tissue

Neural Synapse is the…

site where communication typically occurs between adjacent neurons

Excitatory effects

increase the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential

(e.g glutamate)

Inhibitory effects

decrease the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action.

(e.g. gamma-amino butyric acid )

Neuromodulators are a….

type of neurotransmitters that can ‘modulate’, or influence, the effects of other

neurotransmitters.

These include: dopamine and serotonin

Synaptic Plasticity is the…

Brain's ability to strengthen/weaken connections, essential for learning and memory through neural adaptability.

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

strengthens neuron connections

Long-term depression (LTD)

weakens neuron connections

LTP and LTD can lead too…

• Sprouting: formation of new synaptic connections in response to activity

• Rerouting: altering neural pathways by changing synaptic connection strength

• Pruning: eliminating weaker or redundant synapses to refine neural circuits

Stressors are…

any stimulus that produces stress

Internal Stressors are..

Thoughts, emotions, causing stress reactions.

External Stressors are…

Outside events, like exams, triggering stress.

Psychological Stress is..

Mental tension due to thoughts, emotions.

Physiological Stress is the..

Body's response to stress, like heart rate increase.

Acute Stress is the…

Immediate "fight-or-flight- or-freeze" response to threats

Chronic Stress is..

Prolonged stress, cortisol ( Hormone released during stress to manage body's response) imbalance, health impacts over time.

The GBA is a…

Communication pathway between the gut and brain.

The gut microbiota is

Microorganisms living in the digestive tract

The gut microbiota interacts with…

stress and the nervous system in the control of psychological processes and behaviour.

Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome is a… (GAS)

three-stage physiological response to stress that occurs regardless of the stressor that is encountered.

It is a biological model of stress including...

• alarm reaction (shock/counter shock): Initial shock, body prepares to fight or flee

• resistance: body copes, trying to adapt to ongoing stressors

• exhaustion: resources depleted, increased vulnerability to illness or breakdown

The Lazarus and Folkman Transactional Model of Stress and Coping says that…

stress involves an encounter between an individual & their external environment, and that a stress response depends upon the individual’s evaluation of the relevance of the stressor to his or her wellbeing & their ability to cope with it.

• primary appraisal : Initial assessment of stressor's significance (irrelevant, benign, or stressful)

• secondary appraisal : Evaluates coping resources and strategies for handling the stressor

Coping is…

A process involving cognitive and behavioural efforts to manage specific internal and/or external stressors that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person in a stressful situation.

Coping Strategies are..

methods to manage stress and enhance mental well-being.

Approach coping Strategies are..

Active techniques to confront stressors directly

Avoidance coping Strategies

Actions to distance or distract from stressors.

Context-Specific Effectiveness:

Choosing the right (coping) strategy for a particular situation

Coping Flexibility

Adapting strategies as needed for better stress management and well-being.

The behaviourist approaches to learning..

Emphasises the study of observable behaviour alone to understand and explain learning, without regard to underlying mental processes and states such as thoughts, feelings, motives and consciousness.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

• Before Conditioning: Neutral stimulus lacks a response

• During Conditioning: Neutral stimulus paired with unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

• After Conditioning: Neutral stimulus (now conditioned stimulus, CS) triggers conditioned response (CR)

These three phases result in the involuntary association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response.

OPERANT CONDITIONING

• Antecedent: Environmental cue or trigger

• Behaviour: Individual's response to the cue

• Consequence: Outcome follows behaviour (reinforcement or punishment)

• Reinforcement (Positive/Negative): Increases likelihood of behaviour repetition.

• Punishment (Positive/Negative): Decreases likelihood of behaviour repetition

The Social cognitive approaches emphasises…

The social context in which learning occurs and the cognitive processes that

influence the individual and the learning process.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ways of knowing emphasises…

A holistic and interconnected view of education.

This approach recognises the profound influence of one's surroundings, heritage, and community in the learning process, highlighting the importance of context and cultural values in education.

Multimodal System: Knowledge is conveyed through various means, like storytelling and rituals.

The Atkinson–Shiffrin multi-store model of memory represents..

memory as consisting of three separate stores called sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory.

• Sensory Memory: Brief storage of sensory input (e.g., visual or auditory) for a few seconds.

• Short-Term Memory (STM): Information transferred here for short-term use, held for about 20 sec

• Long-Term Memory (LTM): Information stored semipermanently, potentially for a lifetime.

Encoding is when…

information is initially perceived through the senses and encoded into sensory memory.

• Storage is when if rehearsed or deemed important, information moves to long- term memory (LTM).

• Retrieval is when information can be retrieved from LTM too STM for active use.

Brain Regions are..

Different regions of the brain play varying roles in memory.

• Hippocampus

• Amygdala

• Neocortex

• Basal Ganglia

• Cerebellum

Brain region - Hippocampus

Important for explicit memory (facts, events) and some aspects of implicit memory (spatial).

Brain region - Amygdala:

Enhances emotional aspects in both explicit (emotional events) and implicit (fear conditioning) memory.

Brain region - Neocortex 

Stores and retrieves explicit memory, contributes to implicit memory (skills, priming).

Brain region - Basal Ganglia

Supports implicit memory (procedural, habits) and plays a limited role in explicit memory.

Brain region - Cerebellum

Key for motor skill memory (implicit) and has a minor role in explicit memory.

Episodic memory

Stores personal experiences, helping retrieve past events for autobiographical memory and providing details for constructing future scenarios.

Semantic Memory:

Contains general knowledge and facts, contributing to the contextualisation of autobiographical events and aiding in the construction of imagined futures.

2 conditions that have implications for different types of memory

• Alzheimers disease

• Aphantasia

Alzheimer's Disease:

Brain lesions in Alzheimer's patients often affect the hippocampus, impairing episodic memory retrieval and making it difficult to recall autobiographical events and construct imagined futures.

Aphantasia

A condition where mental imagery is limited or absent. Individuals may struggle with both recalling autobiographical events and constructing vivid imagined futures due to challenges in visualising.

Mnemonics serve as…

memory aids in different cultures, using various techniques to enhance encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

3 Written Cultures

• Acronyms '

• Acrostics

• Method of loci

Acronyms

Abbreviations formed from initial letters or parts of a phrase (e.g. NASA, FBI, AIDs).

Acrostics

Phrases or sentences created using the initial letters of items to be remembered (e.g., "Every Good Boy Does Fine" for music notes).

Method of Loci

Associating items with specific locations in an imagined familiar place, aiding recall.

Mnemonics - Oral Cultures (e.g. Aboriginal Peoples):

• Sung Narratives (song lines): Using songs, stories, and rituals to encode, store, and transmit cultural knowledge orally.

• Oral Tradition: Reliance on verbal communication, repetition, and communal memory to preserve history, traditions, and information.

Sleep is….

is a natural altered state of consciousness characterised by reduced sensory awareness and changes in cognitive processing. 

2 categories

• REM

• NREM

REM (Rapid Eye Movement) is a…

phase of sleep characterised by vivid dreaming, rapid eye movements, and heightened brain activity. It's associated with mental restoration.

NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement) is…

Divided into three stages (N1, N2, N3) representing increasingly deeper sleep with reduced bodily functions. It's associated with physical restoration.

5 measurements of physiological responses associated with sleep

• EEG - Electroencephalography

• EMG - Electroencephalography

• EOG - Electro-Oculography

• Sleep diaries

• Video monitoring

Electroencephalography (EEG)

Records brain activity by measuring electrical signals from the scalp. It helps distinguish between REM and NREM sleep stages.

Electromyography (EMG)

Measures muscle activity and helps identify periods of muscle relaxation (atonia) during REM sleep.

Electro-Oculography (EOG):

Monitors eye movements, which are essential for distinguishing REM and NREM sleep.

Sleep Diaries

Individuals record their sleep patterns, duration, and quality over time, providing subjective data.

Video Monitoring:

Visual recording of sleep behaviours, such as movements, disturbances, and sleep-related disorders.

the 4 Internal mechanisms regulate sleep-wake patterns.

• circadian rhythm

• ultradian rhythms

• Suprachiasmatic nucleus

• Melatonin

Sleep-wake patterns - Circadian rhythm

24-hour cycle, influenced by the suprachiasmatic nucleus, governs alertness and drowsiness.

Sleep-wake patterns - Ultradian Rhythms

shorter sleep cycles during the night, alternating REM and NREM stages.

Sleep-wake patterns - Suprachiasmatic Nucleus

brain's "biological clock," regulates circadian rhythms

Sleep-wake patterns - Melatonin

Hormone produced by the pineal gland, influences sleepiness and wakefulness

Sleep across life

At different stages in life their are different sleep needs and sleep cycle patterns. These variations reflect changes in biological, physiological, and lifestyle factors across the lifespan.

Sleep - Infancy (0-2 years)

Total Sleep: Highest total sleep needs (14-17 hours).

Sleep Pattern: Primarily NREM sleep for growth and development.

Sleep - Childhood (3-12 years)

Total Sleep: Still substantial (9-12 hours).

Sleep Pattern: NREM dominant but REM declines as brain matures.

Sleep - Adolescence (13-19 years)

Total Sleep: Adolescents need 8-10 hrs.

Sleep Pattern: Shift in circadian rhythm, often leading to delayed sleep onset.

sleep - Adulthood (20-64 years)

Total Sleep: 7-9 hours on average.

Sleep Pattern: Balanced NREM-REM sleep.

sleep - Older Adulthood (65+ years)

Total Sleep: tends to reduce to 6-7 hrs

Sleep Pattern: More fragmented sleep, less deep NREM and REM sleep.

Partial Sleep Deprivation (inadequate sleep) has an impact on…

a person’s affective, behavioural and cognitive functioning

Partial Sleep Deprivation Affective Effects: 

Increased mood swings, irritability, and emotional instability.

Partial Sleep Deprivation Behavioural effects

Reduced alertness, impaired decision-making, and decreased impulse control.

Partial Sleep Deprivation Cognitive effects

Poor memory, impaired attention, slower reaction times, and reduced problem-solving skills.

One Night of Full sleep deprivation: affective effects

Mood swings, irritability, emotional reactivity.

One Night of Full sleep deprivation: Cognitive effects

Severe impairment, poor memory, slow reactions.

affective effects (Compared to a BAC of 0.05 and 0.10)

Mild mood changes and relaxation (0.05)

pronounced mood swings & heightened emotions (0.10).

Cognitive effects (Compared to a BAC of 0.05 and 0.10)

Mild cognitive impairment (0.05)

significant impairment, poor coordination, and decision-making (0.10).

Changes in sleep-wake cycles can lead to…

circadian rhythm sleep disorders (DSPS, ASPD and shift work) that can be treated with bright light therapy.

Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorders are.. (CRSD)

Disruptions in the body's natural sleep-wake cycle

DSPS (Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome) is a..

A CRSD where the sleep-wake cycle is shifted later, making it hard to wake up early.

ASPD (Advanced Sleep Phase Disorder)

A CRSD where the sleep- wake cycle shifts earlier, leading to very early sleep onset & wake-up times

Shift Work:

A CRSD caused by irregular work hours, resulting in sleep difficulties

Bright Light Therapy: 

Treatment involving exposure to bright light, used to reset the circadian rhythm and manage CRSDs.

Sleep hygiene is about…

adopting habits that improve the quality and quantity of your sleep. You can do this by Establishing healthy sleep habits for better sleep and mental well-being.

Sleep hygiene strategies relate to improving…

Zeitgebers are environmental cues like daylight, temperature, eating, and drinking that influence our circadian rhythms.

the 3 Zeitgebers

• Daylight and blue light

• Temperature

• Eating and drinking patterns

Daylight and blue light zeitgebers

Exposure to natural light in the morning and minimizing blue light (e.g., screens) in the evening help regulate sleep-wake patterns.