SAP Unit 1: Anthropology

Anthropology Unit 1

Anthropology

Anthropology is the study of humanity, examining human biology, evolution, language and cultural societies.

Anthropology Sub-Types

Linguistic Anthropology, Cultural Anthropology, Physical Anthropology, and Anthropology of Kinship.

What Do Anthropologists Do To Gain Insight About How Humans Live?

Anthropologists use reasoning to gain insight into how humans live, think, communicate, produce and interact with their environment.

What Careers Can You Go Into Using Anthropology?

Social science analyst, Social service agency planner, Archaeological fieldworker, Forensic anthropologist - and etc.

Social Science Inquiry Method

A process used by social scientists to investigate and comprehend human behavior, communities, societies, and social phenomena

Culture

Culture is information about behavior that is transmitted from one person to another and enables people to live together successfully.

Three Main Elements of Culture

Material Objects, Attitudes and Behaviors

Myths

Myths often contain stories both about the origins of the world and of cultural heroes, also provide reasons/examples why people should practice the most important attitudes and behaviors of their culture

What Do Myths Do?

Myths are intended to reassure people about where they came from and where they are going

Origins Of Anthropology

Anthropology started in the 19th century, originally made to look at first world countries and with an ethnocentric view (Western Society was better than anyone else). The view eventually shifted in the 20th century and realized Anthropologist

Origins Of Anthropology (2)

The view eventually shifted in the 20th century and realized Anthropologist is not to judge but explain

Modern Anthropology

Explaining could only be done by observation and record keeping, most researchers using Participant Observation.

Linguistic Anthropology

• The relationship between language culture and society

• A way for individuals to create and sustain cultural beliefs, relationships and identities

Linguistic Anthropology (2)

• The process of analyzing how language and culture impact one another and how it shapes individual’s thoughts

• How languages have different dialects and changes over a brief period of time

Edward Spair

Edward → Linguist and Anthropologist Proposed that the language we speak influences one’s perspective and experiences the world

Benjamin Lee Whorf

Benjamin Lee Whorf → Hypothesized a relation between the structure of language and the thought process of the speakers

Spair-Whorf Hypothesis

The Spair-Whorf Hypothesis proposes that the specific language you speak shapes how you think, perceive, and understand the world

Strong Form (Linguistic Determinism)

Explains that language controls thought and cultural norms, and therefore, individuals are incapable of understanding concepts their language does not support.

Weak Form (Linguistic Relativity)

Explains that language influences thought and perception. It does not prevent understanding of certain concepts

Dialect

A specific form of a language spoken by specific groups of people, often with a specific region, culture, period of time or community

Biological Parts of Speech Production

Vocal Chords (Larynx), Tongue and Palate

Cultural Anthropology

Branch of anthropology focused on the study of cultural variation among humans

Cultural Relativism

The principle that a person's beliefs, values, and practices must be understood based on that person's own culture, rather than judged against the standards of another

Ethnocentrism

The practice of judging other cultures by the standards and values of one's own culture, often viewing one's own group as superior

Cultural Evolutionism

Cultural Evolutionism is the theory that all societies develop in a regular series of predictable stages (this theory is no longer valid due to it’s racist background)

Franz Boas (1858-1941)

Considered the “Father of Anthropology”, Boas coined the term Cultural Relativism and reject the thought of other cultures as “savages”

Boas Methods

Methods → Observation of human bodies and human cultures

Boas Theories

Culture is the primary determinant of differences, not racial/biological differences

Ruth Benedict (1887-1948)

Studied the role of religion in shaping human personality, studied Japanese culture to assist redevelopment after WW2 - and helped make Anthropology recognized as “practical”

Benedict’s Methods

Methods → Observation and participant observation

Works →Wrote about the difference between race and culture, agreed with Franz Boas on culture being a better determinant of actions and personality than race

Benedict’s Theories

• Culture is composed of intellectual, religious, and aesthetic element

• A small range of human behavior is present within the “personality” of any one culture

Margaret Mead (1901-1978)

The most famous of the early anthropologists due to her studies in the Pacific Islands (Samoa) and her studies related to gender roles

Mead’s Methods

Participant observation and handmade notes and her memory for research

Mead’s Theories

Culture is the primary determinant of personality and gender roles

Bronislaw Malinowski (1884 - 1942)

Studies the people of New Guinea & Trobriand Islands, along with social organizations in different societies

Malinowski’s Methods

Participation Observation

Malinowski’s Theories

Functional Theory → All social institutions are designed & modified to meet needs of most of the population

Theory of Needs → Culture functions to meet the needs of individuals, not society as a whole. By meeting the needs of individuals, the needs of society are met

Zora Neale Hurston (1891-1960)

She was an American write and Anthropologist Focusing on Hoodoo, Caribbean Vodoo and the African American experience with the integration of her own struggles as an African-American woman

Hurston’s Methods

Ethnographic Fieldwork and Narratives

Hurston’s Theories

Feminist Theory, Cultural Relativism and wanted to push back against dominant culture narratives at her time

Kim Tallbear (1968-Present)

Indigenous anthropologist who is amember of the Sisseton Wahpeton Oyate tribe from the Dakotas

Tallbear’s Methods

Community-based research, Storytelling and oral histories

Tallbear’s Theories

Critical Race Theory, Kinship and Relationality - studies of Genetic Science with intersections of race and indigeneity

Physical Anthropology

A scientific discipline concerned with the biological and behavioral aspects of human beings, their extinct hominid ancestors, and related non-human primates, particularly from an evolutionary perspective

Raymond Dart

Found an transitional skull in 1924, Australopithecus “Southern Ape” and in 1974 he found more evidence for his findings

Dart’s Methods

Archaeology, observation of studies and fossils

Dart’s Theories (KAT)

Killer Ape Theory → A mid-20th-century hypothesis stating that aggressive behavior and warfare drove human evolution

Louis (1903-1972) & Mary (1913-1996) Leakey

Likely the most famous family of physical anthropologists, 1930’s people thought human origins in Asia but they disagreed and found early homonid fossils in Africa

Leaky’s Contribution

They thought the study of primates would help us to understand our ancestors & recruited women to study them: Jane Goodall, Dian Fossey, & Biruté Mary Galdikas

Leaky’s Methods

• Archaeology

• Observation and study of fossils

• Radiometric dating of fossils

Leaky’s Theories

• Human evolution began in Africa (not Asia)

• Humans walked upright prior to their brains getting bigger

Jane Goodall (1934-2025)

Observed & recorded lives of chimpanzees, initially from a distance but moved closer when she got their trust

Goodall’s Methods & Theories

Methods → Participant observation

Theories → All of her observations and discoveries about chimps are applied to research about human evolution and our ancestors.

Biruté Mary Galdikas (1946-Present)

She studied orangutans and found that they shared 98% of genetic material with humans

Galdika’s Methods & Theories

Methods → Participant observation

Theories → All of her observations and discoveries about orangutans are applied to research about human evolution and our ancestors

Dian Fossey (1932-1985)

Observed gorilla’s from a distance and eventually close up

Fossey’s Methods & Theories

Methods → Observation and Participant observation

Theories → All of her observations and discoveries about Gorillas are applied to research about human evolution and our ancestors

Donald Johanson (1943-Present)

In 1974 found “Lucy”, an early hominid skeleton 40% complete, suggesting upright walking of early ancestors

Lucy

Lucy is still considered one of the most important archeological finds of all time because she is the most complete

Johanson’s Methods

Archaeology, observation and study of fossils - radiometric dating of fossils

Johanson’s Theories

Study of his find “Lucy” has given enormous information to the study of human evolution.

Dorothy Lippert (1967-Present)

Study of focus is on human skeletal remains from Indigenous populations and analyzes biological/social aspects of past Indigenous communities

Lippert’s Methods & Theories

Methods → Skeletal analysis technique, paleopathology and ethnography

Michael Blakey (1953-Present)

Study of interest is African American skeletal remains and the impact of slavery on the health of these populations

Blakey’s Methods & Theories

Methods → Osteological Analysis and Forensic anthropology

Theories → Having an intersectional approach when viewing and acknowledging the social, historical and political context. 

Katerina Harvati (1970-Present)

Expert in human evolution, particularly the study of early hominins. 

Harvati Methods

• Geometric Morphometrics - uses statistical methods to analyze fossil skulls. 

• Fossil Excavation 

• Comparative Anatomy and Genetic Analysis 

• Population Modelling

Harvati Theories

• Population Dynamics and Migration - human populations were mobile as groups of individuals migrated across different regions. 

• Neanderthal Contributions - traits such as immunity, adaptations to cold climates, and aspects of the cranial anatomy in modern humans are passed down from Neanderthals

Australopithecus Afarensis

Lived in Eastern Africa between 3.85 - 2.95 million years ago

Australopithecus Boisei

Lived in Eastern Africa between 2.4 -1.4 million years ago

Homo Habilis

Lived in Southern and Eastern Africa between 2.4-1.4 million years ago

Homo Rudolfensis

Lived in Eastern Africa between 1.9-1.8 million years ago

Homo Ergaster

Lived between 1.9 and 1.4 million years ago, earliest stage of Homo Erectus (African version)

Homo Erectus

Lived in Eastern Africa, Southern Africa, Western Asia and Eastern Asia between 1.89 million and 143,000 years ago

Homo Naledi

Founded in recent years (2014), it lived in South Africa between 335,000-236,000 years ago

Homo Heidelbergensis

Lived in Europe, Asia and Africa between 700,000 - 200,000 years ago

Homo Neanderthalensis

Lived in Europe and Asia between 400,000-40,000 years ago

Homo Sapiens

Live worlwide from 200,000 years ago - right now

Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778)

Swedish scientist who developed the modern system of naming and classifying organisms

Linnaeus’s Works

• Created binomial nomenclature (two-part scientific names)

  • Example: Homo sapiens

• Grouped organisms based on shared physical characteristics

• Laid the foundation for modern taxonomy (classification of living things)

Orthogenisis

An old, disproven theory about historical evolutionary theory that proposed evolution follows a straight, predetermined direction

Phylogeny

Study of the evolutionary history and relationships among species

Braided Stream

Shows that evolution is not a straight line, it’s multiple branches and reconnecting pathways

Charles Darwin (1809 - 1882)

Was known as the Father of Evolutionary Theory and developed the theory of natural selection

Evolution

Evolution happens over many generations, it explains the diversity of life on Earth.

Darwin Finches

• During his voyage on the HMS Beagle, Darwin observed finches on the Galápagos Islands. He noticed that:

  1. Different islands had finches with different beak shapes.

  2. Beak shapes matched available food sources.

Natural Selection

Natural selection is the process by which organisms that are better adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing their traits on to the next generation

The Theory of Natural Selection

Variation Exists, Overproduction Occurs, Struggle for Survival, Survival of the Fittest, and Descent with Modification

Gregor Mendel (1822-1884)

Discovered the basic principles of how traits are inherited from parents to offspring

Mendel’s Notes

Discovered the basic principles of how traits are inherited from parents to offspring

Al-Jahiz (776-868 AD)

Muslim writer, scholar who wrote across many subjects including zoology, ecology, and philosophy

Al-Jahi'z’s Notes

Observed and described many animals, their behaviors, and how they live in ecosystems

Human Variation

The differences in physical and genetic traits in humans, making each and every human unique

Kinship

Kinship is the system of social relationships that connect people through blood relations (biological ties), marriage, or social bonds (adoption or close friendships)

Key Concepts of Kinship

• Descent: The social recognition of lineage, tracing ancestors.

• Affinity: Relationships formed by marriage.

• Fictive Kinship: Social bonds that are treated like family despite not being biological (e.g., godparents, close friends).

How Do Anthropologists Study Kinship

Anthropologists critically analyze how it functions in different societies and how it challenges traditional notions of kinship

Kinship System Variations

Matrilineal Kinship, Patrilineal Kinship and Bilateral Kinship

Matrilineal Kinship

Kinship is traced through the mother’s side of the family, which makes women have more of a central role in the family (In Indonesia inheritance is passed through the female line)

Patrilineal Kinship

Kinship is traced through the father's side of the family, for example: Some societies in Asia and Africa, inheritance, family names, and social identity pass through the male line

Bilateral Kinship

Kinship is recognized equally through both the mother's and father's sides. Both play a significant role in social and economic matters (common is Western society)