Learning and Memory Exam 1 Important Terms

Learning

The process by which experience leads to changes in behavior

Memory

The ability to store and retrieve information over time

Episodic Memory

Memory of personal experiences or specific events (e.g., your last birthday).

Semantic Memory

General knowledge and facts (e.g., capital cities, definitions).

Procedural Memory

Skills and habits (e.g., riding a bike, typing)

Behaviorism

Focuses on observable behaviors and the role of reinforcement and punishment in learning (e.g., Pavlov, Skinner)

Cognitive Psychology

Focuses on internal processes such as perception, thinking, memory, and problem-solving.

Classical Conditioning

Learning through association between stimuli.

Operant Conditioning

Learning through reinforcement and punishment

Observational Learning

Learning by observing the behavior of others (Bandura’s social learning theory)

Hippocampus

Crucial for the formation of new long-term declarative memories (episodic and semantic). It is heavily involved in spatial memory and contextual memory.

Amygdala

Involved in emotional learning, particularly fear conditioning. It modulates memory consolidation based on emotional significance.

Prefrontal cortex

Responsible for decision-making, planning, and working memory. It plays a role in the organization and retrieval of information.

Cerebellum

Important for motor learning and classical conditioning of motor responses (e.g., eye-blink conditioning).

Basal Ganglia

Involved in procedural learning, habit formation, and motor skills

Dopamine

Central to reward-based learning. Reinforces behaviors by increasing the likelihood of repeating actions that lead to rewards.

Acetylcholine

Important for attention and encoding new memories

Glutamate

Key in synaptic plasticity, involved in both LTP (long-term potentiation) and LTD (long-term depression).

LTP (Long-Term Potentiation)

Strengthening of synaptic connections through repeated stimulation, associated with learning and memory formation.

LTD (Long-Term Depression)

Weakening of synapses, which may contribute to forgetting or refining neural networks by eliminating unnecessary connections.

Hebbian Learning

Neurons that fire together, wire together

What kind of role does sleep play on memory?

Sleep helps consolidate newly acquired memories, especially procedural and declarative memories. REM sleep is particularly involved in processing emotional and skill-related memories.

Habituation

A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure.

Neural Basis for Habituation

Reduced release of neurotransmitters at synapses responsible for the response to the stimulus.

Sensitization

An increased response to a stimulus following a strong or noxious stimulus. For example, becoming more sensitive to loud noises after hearing a sudden, startling sound.

Neural basis for Sensitization

Enhanced synaptic transmission, often involving changes in neurotransmitter release or receptor sensitivity.

Familiarization

The process of recognizing a stimulus after repeated exposure, which typically does not require further processing or learning. This occurs through a process of comparison to stored memory.

Non-Associative Learning

Both habituation and sensitization are forms of non-associative learning because

they do not require the pairing of stimuli, unlike classical and operant

conditioning

What are the components of Classical Conditioning?

• Unconditioned response

• Unconditioned response

• Conditioned Stimulus

• Conditioned Response

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response (e.g., food)

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

The natural reaction to the UCS (e.g., salivation in response to food)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with the UCS, triggers a conditioned response (e.g., bell in Pavlov’s experiment).

Conditioned Response (CR)

The learned response to the CS (e.g., salivation in response to the bell).

Acquisition

The process of learning the association between the CS and UCS.

Extinction

The weakening or disappearance of the CR when the CS is no longer paired with the UCS.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of the CR after a rest period, even though extinction has occurred.

Stimulus Generalization

The tendency for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit the CR

Stimulus Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between the CS and other stimuli that are not paired with the UCS.

Conditioned Taste Aversion

earning to avoid a food after it has been associated with illness

Fear Conditioning

Associating a neutral stimulus with a fearful event, leading to a conditioned fear response (e.g., fear of dogs after a bite).

Rescorla-Wagner Model

Surprise boosts learning

Mackintosh CS Modulation Theory

Different stimuli are better at predicting important outcomes, so organisms learn to focus on those stimuli that are good predictors of desirable outcomes

Operant Conditioning

learning in which behavior is shaped by its consequences

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior (e.g.,

giving a treat for good behavior)

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an aversive stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., taking away chores for good grades)

Positive Punishment

dding an unpleasant stimulus to reduce behavior (e.g.,

scolding)

Negative Punishment

Removing a pleasant stimulus to reduce behavior (e.g., taking away privileges).

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement after a fixed number of responses (e.g., earning a reward after every 10 purchases)

Variable-Ratio Schedule

reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., slot machines)

Fixed-Interval Schedule

Reinforcement after a fixed amount of time (e.g., a paycheck every two weeks).

Variable-Interval Schedule

Reinforcement after varying time intervals (e.g., checking your phone for a message).

Shaping

A process of reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behavior. For example, training a rat to press a lever by rewarding closer and closer steps toward the lever

Extinction

Occurs when a behavior is no longer reinforced, leading to a decrease in that behavior

Premack Principle

Using a more preferred activity to reinforce a less preferred one. For example, a child must finish homework before being allowed to play video games.

Token Economies

Systems in which tokens are earned for desired behaviors and can be exchanged for rewards.

Behavior Modification

Using operant conditioning techniques to encourage positive behaviors and reduce negative ones (e.g., in classroom management or therapy)

Amygdala

Critical for emotional learning, particularly fear conditioning. It modulates the emotional intensity of memories.

Basal Ganglia

Central to procedural learning and habit formation. It is involved in reinforcing behaviors that lead to rewards (e.g., in operant conditioning).

Prefrontal Cortex

Important for decision-making, planning, and moderating behavior based on rewards and punishments.

Cerebellum

Plays a crucial role in motor learning and classical conditioning of reflexive

responses

Pavlov's Dogs

Classical conditioning experiment where dogs learned to associate the sound of a bell (CS) with food (UCS) and salivate (CR) in response to the bell alone.

Skinner Box

B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning chamber where animals learned to press levers for food reinforcement or to avoid punishment.

Little Albert

A case study in classical conditioning where a child was conditioned to fear white rats by pairing them with loud, frightening noises