Integrated Systems Anatomy and Physiology: Reproductive, Digestive, Respiratory, and Renal Systems

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering the gross anatomy, microanatomy, physiology, and laboratory diagnostics of the human female reproductive, male reproductive, digestive, respiratory, and renal systems.

Tunica Albuginea (Female)

A white fibrous layer of connective tissue that forms the outer protective capsule surrounding the surface of the ovary.

Suspensory Ligament of the Ovary

A peritoneal fold attaching the ovary to the lateral pelvic wall, conducting ovarian arteries, veins, and nerves to and from the ovary.

Fimbriae

Fringed, finger-like projections at the infundibular end of the uterine tubes that stroke the ovary to create fluid currents that sweep the ovulated oocyte into the fallopian tube.

Stratum Functionalis

The superficial layer of the endometrium that proliferates during the follicular phase and sloughs off during menses in response to declining progesterone levels.

Stratum Basalis

The deep, permanent basal layer of the endometrium that remains intact during menstruation and regenerates the functional layer during each new cycle.

Primordial Follicle

An immature ovarian follicle residing in the ovarian cortex consisting of a primary oocyte surrounded by a single layer of flat granulosa cells.

Graafian Follicle

A mature follicle containing a single large fluid-filled antrum and a secondary oocyte enveloped by cumulus granulosa cells.

Zona Pellucida

A thick, translucent glycoprotein layer surrounding the oocyte that contains specific receptor sites for sperm acrosome binding.

Corpus Luteum

The endocrine glandular body formed from the collapsed follicle after ovulation that synthesizes and secretes progesterone and oestrogen.

Colostrum

A yellowish, antibody-rich fluid produced by mammary glands immediately postpartum that is high in protein, low in lactose, and contains virtually no fat.

Uterine Cycle

The monthly series of cyclic changes in the endometrial lining consisting of the menstrual phase (menses), proliferative phase (driven by oestrogen), and secretory phase (driven by progesterone).

Tunica Albuginea (Male)

A dense white fibrous connective tissue capsule covering the testis that invaginates inward as septa to divide the parenchyma into roughly $250$ lobules.

Leydig Cells

Interstitial endocrine cells located in the connective tissue spaces between seminiferous tubules that synthesize and secrete testosterone in response to LH.

Sertoli Cells

Sustentacular supporting cells in the seminiferous epithelium that nourish developing sperm, secrete androgen-binding protein (ABP), and produce inhibin.

Stereocilia

Long, non-motile microvilli lining the pseudostratified columnar epithelium of the epididymis that increase surface area for luminal fluid reabsorption.

Spermatic Cord

A connective tissue structure traversing the inguinal canal that contains the ductus (vas) deferens, testicular artery, pampiniform venous plexus, nerves, and lymphatic vessels.

Seminal Vesicles

Paired accessory glands contributing approximately $60\%$ of semen volume, producing a secretion rich in fructose, citric acid, prostaglandins, and fibrinogen.

Prostate Gland

A male accessory gland encircling the prostatic urethra that contributes approximately $30\%$ of semen volume, secreting fibrinolysin and antimicrobial seminalplasmin.

Bulbourethral Glands

Paired accessory glands near the bulb of the penis contributing approximately $5\%$ of semen volume, secreting alkaline mucus to lubricate and neutralize acidic urethral residue.

Spermiogenesis

The final maturation phase of spermatogenesis during which spherical spermatids differentiate into flagellated spermatozoa without undergoing cell division.

Acrosome

A lysosome-like organelle capping the anterior nucleus of a mature sperm cell that contains hydrolytic enzymes essential for penetrating the ovum.

Salivary Amylase

A digestive enzyme secreted by salivary glands that hydrolyzes starch into the disaccharide maltose, exhibiting optimal enzymatic activity at $\text{pH } 7.0$.

IKI Reagent

An iodine-potassium iodide reagent used to detect the presence of starch, producing a blue-black or grey color in a positive test and remaining yellow in a negative test.

Benedict's Reagent

A chemical reagent used to detect reducing sugars like maltose or glucose, forming a green, orange, or reddish-brown precipitate upon boiling when positive.

Pepsin

A gastric endopeptidase secreted by chief cells as inactive pepsinogen that hydrolyzes proteins into smaller peptides under highly acidic conditions ($\text{pH } 2.0$).

BAPNA

A synthetic protein substrate that releases a measurable yellow dye upon enzymatic cleavage by pepsin, allowing hydrolysis to be quantified via optical density.

Bile Salts

Amphipathic cholesterol derivatives produced by the liver that emulsify dietary lipids into micro-droplets, expanding the surface area available for lipase action.

Pancreatic Lipase

A water-soluble enzyme in pancreatic juice that hydrolyzes emulsified triglycerides into free fatty acids and monoglycerides, causing a measurable drop in $\text{pH}$.

Masseter

A powerful muscle of mastication that originates on the zygomatic arch and inserts on the mandible, acting to elevate and protract the mandible.

Temporalis

A fan-shaped masticatory muscle covering the temporal fossa that elevates and retracts the mandible across the temporomandibular joint.

Buccinator

A cheek muscle that assists mastication by compressing the cheeks to hold food between the occlusal surfaces of the teeth, without crossing the temporomandibular joint.

Filiform Papillae

Small, cone-shaped, keratinized tongue papillae that provide abrasive friction for manipulating food but do not contain tastebuds.

Parotid Gland

The largest salivary gland, located anterior and inferior to the ear, which secretes a purely serous saliva rich in amylase.

Oesophageal Hiatus

The opening through the diaphragm via which the oesophagus passes from the thoracic cavity into the abdominal cavity.

Parietal Cells

Large, round, eosinophilic cells situated within gastric glands that secrete hydrochloric acid ($\text{HCl}$) and intrinsic factor.

Chief Cells

Basophilic gastric gland cells that synthesize and release the inactive zymogen pepsinogen.

Plicae Circulares

Permanent macroscopic circular mucosal folds projecting into the intestinal lumen that spiral chyme and increase absorptive surface area.

Brunner's Glands

Branched submucosal glands located exclusively in the duodenum that secrete an alkaline, bicarbonate-rich mucus to neutralize acidic gastric chyme.

Taeniae Coli

Three distinct longitudinal ribbons of smooth muscle running along the colon representing the condensed longitudinal layer of the muscularis externa.

Haustra

Series of pouch-like, sacculated segments of the colon wall created by the tonic contraction of the taeniae coli.

Portal Triad

A structural grouping located at the corners of liver lobules comprising a branch of the hepatic portal vein, a branch of the hepatic artery, and a bile ductule.

Sphincter of Oddi

A smooth muscle valve surrounding the hepatopancreatic ampulla that regulates the discharge of bile and pancreatic juice through the duodenal papilla.

Carina

An internal cartilaginous ridge located at the bifurcation of the trachea into the primary bronchi that possesses sensitive mucosa capable of triggering the cough reflex.

Bronchopulmonary Segment

A functionally independent, anatomically segregated wedge of lung tissue aerated by its own tertiary (segmental) bronchus and supplied by dedicated vessels.

Terminal Bronchiole

The narrowest non-respiratory conducting airway, lined with smooth muscle and lacking cartilage and alveolar outpocketings.

Bronchial Arteries

Systemic arterial branches originating from the descending thoracic aorta that deliver oxygenated blood to all pulmonary parenchyma except the alveoli.

Type I Pneumocytes

Extremely thin simple squamous epithelial cells that line approximately $95\%$ of the alveolar wall and facilitate rapid gas diffusion across the respiratory membrane.

Type II Pneumocytes

Cuboidal epithelial cells embedded in the alveolar wall that synthesize, store, and secrete pulmonary surfactant.

Pulmonary Surfactant

A surface-active lipoprotein complex that lowers the surface tension of alveolar fluid, preventing alveolar collapse during expiration.

Carbaminohaemoglobin

A biochemical compound formed when carbon dioxide reversibly binds to globin amino terminal groups on haemoglobin, accounting for $23\%$ of blood $\text{CO}_2$ transport.

Carboxyhaemoglobin

A stable complex formed by the binding of carbon monoxide to the heme iron of haemoglobin, competing with and displacing oxygen.

Respiratory Membrane

The multi-layer barrier through which gas exchange occurs between the alveoli and pulmonary capillaries, composed of alveolar epithelium, fused basement membranes, and capillary endothelium.

Nasal Vestibule

The expanded anterior lumen of the nasal cavity situated directly inside each nostril, lined with skin containing sebaceous glands, sweat glands, and coarse filtering hairs.

Pharyngotympanic Tube

A mucosal tube connecting the nasopharynx to the middle ear cavity that equalizes intratympanic pressure with external atmospheric pressure.

Arytenoid Cartilages

Paired, movable, pyramid-shaped laryngeal cartilages whose rotation alters the tension, length, and position of the true vocal cords to regulate vocal pitch.

False Vocal Cords

The upper mucosal vestibular folds of the larynx that do not vibrate to produce sound but function to close the glottis during deglutition.

Tidal Volume

The volume of air inspired or expired during a normal, quiet breath at rest, typically measuring approximately $500\,\text{mL}$ in a healthy adult.

Anatomical Dead Space

The volume of conducting respiratory airways (approximately $150\,\text{mL}$) where inspired gas does not participate in alveolar gas exchange.

Vital Capacity

The maximal volume of air that can be expelled from the lungs following a maximal inhalation, calculated as the sum of Inspiratory Capacity and Expiratory Reserve Volume ($VC = IC + ERV$).

Minute Ventilation

The total volume of air inspired or expired per minute, determined by multiplying the tidal volume by the respiratory frequency ($V_E = V_T \times f$).

Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 Second (FEV1)

The volume of air exhaled during the first second of a maximal forced expiratory effort starting from full vital capacity.

Obstructive Lung Disease

A respiratory condition characterized by airway narrowing or collapse during expiration, resulting in a normal $FVC$ but a markedly reduced $FEV_1$ and an $FEV_1/FVC$ ratio well below $80\%$.

Restrictive Lung Disease

A pulmonary disorder characterized by reduced lung compliance and restricted expansion, causing proportional reductions in both $FVC$ and $FEV_1$ while maintaining a normal or near-normal $FEV_1/FVC$ ratio.

Retroperitoneal

An anatomical position situated posterior to the parietal peritoneum along the posterior abdominal wall, descriptive of the kidneys and ureters.

Renal Pyramid

A cone-shaped, striated tissue mass situated in the renal medulla whose base borders the cortex and whose apical papilla drains urine into a minor calyx.

Renal Columns

Extensions of granular cortical tissue that dip down into the medullary space between adjacent renal pyramids.

Renal Pelvis

A flattened, funnel-shaped basin formed by the convergence of major calyces that conducts urine from the kidney into the proximal ureter.

Cortical Nephron

The dominant nephron subtype ($85\%$ of all nephrons) possessing a corpuscle in the outer cortex and a short loop of Henle surrounded by peritubular capillaries.

Juxtamedullary Nephron

A specialized nephron subtype ($15\%$ of all nephrons) featuring a corpuscle near the corticomedullary junction and a long loop of Henle accompanied by vasa recta that establishes the medullary osmotic gradient.

Trigone

A smooth, triangular area situated at the base of the bladder demarcated by the two ureteral orifices and the internal urethral orifice.

Detrusor Muscle

The thick, three-layered smooth muscle coat of the urinary bladder wall that contracts under parasympathetic control during micturition to evacuate urine.

Podocytes

Specialized visceral epithelial cells of Bowman's capsule with interdigitating foot processes (pedicels) that encircle glomerular capillaries to form filtration slits.

Glomerular Capillary Pressure (GCP)

The hydrostatic blood pressure inside glomerular capillaries that serves as the primary force promoting filtration into Bowman's space.

Blood Colloidal Osmotic Pressure (BCOP)

The inward osmotic pull generated by retained plasma proteins within glomerular capillaries that opposes glomerular filtration.

Capsular Hydrostatic Pressure (CHP)

The back-pressure exerted by accumulated fluid within the capsular space of Bowman's capsule that opposes filtration.

Renin

An enzymatic hormone synthesized and released by juxtaglomerular cells in response to reduced renal perfusion pressure, cleaving angiotensinogen into angiotensin I.

Aldosterone

A mineralocorticoid steroid hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex that acts on principal cells of the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct to stimulate sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion.

Antidiuretic Hormone

A peptide hormone synthesized by the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary that inserts aquaporin water channels into the collecting ducts to induce facultative water reabsorption.