Social Psychology lecture 1: Research Methods

What is empirical research

Research based on observations, measurements and collected data.

What are the main steps of the scientific process

1. Develop a research question and hypothesis. 2. Operationalize concepts. 3. Design a study. 4. Collect and analyze data. 5. Interpret results.

What is a theory

A general explanation of a phenomenon or psychological process.

What is a hypothesis

A testable prediction about a relationship or effect.

What is the difference between a general and specific hypothesis

A general hypothesis is broad; a specific hypothesis makes a concrete, testable prediction.

What is a conceptual variable

An abstract psychological concept researchers want to investigate, such as happiness, intelligence or belonging.

What is operationalization

Turning an abstract psychological construct into something concrete and measurable.

What is measurement

A method of collecting data based on the operationalization of a construct.

What is the difference between operationalization and measurement

Operationalization defines how a concept will be measured; measurement is the actual method used to collect data.

Give an example of operationalizing happiness. Measure happiness using a self-report questionnaire, smiling frequency or physiological responses.

What are the five main measurement approaches in this lecture

Self-report, indirect measures, physiological measures, brain imaging and behavioral measures.

What are self-report measures

Methods in which participants report their own thoughts, feelings, opinions or experiences.

Give an example of a self-report measure. Asking participants to rate their relationship satisfaction from 1 to 7.

What are the main limitations of self-report measures

Wording effects, social desirability, inaccurate memories and limited awareness of mental processes.

What are wording effects in self-report

Changes in question wording or response scales can influence participants' answers.

What is social desirability bias

The tendency to give answers that seem socially acceptable rather than answering honestly.

Why can memories be a problem in self-report

People may have false, distorted or inaccurate memories of their experiences.

Why might people be unable to accurately report their mental processes

Some thoughts and psychological processes are unconscious or inaccessible to conscious awareness.

What are indirect measures

Measures that assess automatic thoughts or associations without directly asking participants about them.

What is a word completion task

An indirect measure in which participants complete incomplete words, potentially revealing accessible concepts.

What is the Implicit Association Test (IAT)

A reaction-time test that measures automatic associations between concepts.

How does the IAT work

Participants categorize stimuli as quickly as possible; reaction times indicate the strength of automatic associations.

What are physiological measures

Measures of bodily responses such as heart rate, pupil dilation and skin conductance.

What can heart rate, pupil dilation and skin conductance help measure

Anxiety, arousal, attraction and concentration.

What is eye tracking

A technique measuring where and for how long participants look at a stimulus.

What does EEG measure

Electrical activity in the brain.

What does fMRI measure

Changes in blood flow in different brain regions.

What is the difference between EEG and fMRI

EEG measures electrical brain activity; fMRI measures blood flow in brain regions.

What are behavioral measures

Methods that involve observing and recording participants' actual behavior.

Give an example of a behavioral measure. Observing whether someone helps a stranger in need.

What is correlational research

Research examining whether two or more variables are related.

What does a positive correlation mean

As one variable increases, the other variable tends to increase.

What does a negative correlation mean

As one variable increases, the other variable tends to decrease.

Does correlation establish causation

No. Correlation does not prove that one variable causes the other.

What are the three possible explanations for a correlation between A and B

A causes B; B causes A; or a third variable C causes both A and B.

What is a third-variable explanation

Another variable influences both correlated variables, potentially explaining their relationship.

Why can correlational research not establish cause and effect

It cannot establish causal direction or rule out alternative third-variable explanations.

What is experimental research

Research in which researchers manipulate an independent variable to examine its effect on a dependent variable.

What is an independent variable (IV)

The variable deliberately manipulated by the researcher.

What is a dependent variable (DV)

The outcome measured by the researcher to determine the effect of the IV.

How can you identify the IV in an experiment

Ask: What did the researcher deliberately change or manipulate?

How can you identify the DV in an experiment

Ask: What outcome did the researcher measure?

What is a control group

A comparison group that does not receive the experimental manipulation or receives a control treatment.

In a caffeine experiment, participants receive one cup, two cups or decaf. What is the IV

The dose of caffeine.

In the caffeine experiment, anxiety is measured. What is the DV

Anxiety levels.

What is random assignment

Randomly allocating participants to different experimental conditions.

Why is random assignment important

It helps distribute individual differences, such as personality and demographics, across experimental groups.

What is a quasi-experiment

A study comparing existing groups without randomly assigning participants to manipulated group conditions.

Why is comparing existing yoga and fitness participants quasi-experimental

Researchers compare pre-existing groups rather than manipulating participants' group membership.

What is priming

Making a particular concept more accessible in someone's mind, potentially influencing subsequent responses.

In the God-priming experiment, what was the IV

Salience/accessibility of God: whether participants were reminded of God's influence.

In the God-priming experiment, what was the DV

Participants' willingness to engage in risky behavior.

What is internal validity

The extent to which we can confidently conclude that the IV caused the observed effect on the DV.

What is a confounding variable

An additional factor that could explain the observed relationship or difference between experimental conditions.

How can researchers improve internal validity

Control other factors so that the IV is the only systematic difference between conditions.

What is external validity

The extent to which research findings can be generalized to other people, populations and situations.

What is ecological validity

The extent to which a research setting or situation resembles real-life conditions.

What is the difference between internal and external validity

Internal validity concerns whether the IV caused the effect; external validity concerns whether findings can be generalized.

Why can small convenience samples reduce external validity

They may not represent the wider population, making generalization difficult.

What is replication

Repeating a study to determine whether its findings can be reproduced.

Why is replication important

It helps establish whether research findings are reliable and reproducible.

What is a false positive in research

A finding suggesting an effect exists when the effect is actually absent.

Why can psychological measurement be political

Measurements can reflect cultural assumptions, social inequalities and particular ideas about what should be valued.

What is cultural bias in psychological testing

When a test favors people with particular cultural knowledge, experiences or educational backgrounds.

Why can intelligence tests be culturally biased

They may measure Western educational knowledge and cultural experiences rather than intelligence alone.

What was the historical Army Alpha intelligence test example

Tests used to select American army recruits during World War I, with results interpreted by some researchers as evidence of innate group differences.

What was Bond's criticism of the Army Alpha tests

He argued that the tests measured opportunities for experience and education rather than innate intelligence.

What is the key lesson from the intelligence-testing example

Researchers must question whether their measurements genuinely measure the intended construct and account for cultural bias.