Social Psychology Exam 2

Self-Justification

The tendency to justify one’s actions in order ot maintain one’s self-esteem

Cognitive Dissonance

A state of tension that occurs whenever an individual simultaneously holds two cognitions (Ideas, attitudes, beliefs, opinions) that are psychologically inconsistent

Principle of Cognitive Consistency

We prefer our beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors to be congruent and align with our self-image

Underlies cognitive dissonance

Self-Deceptions

Things people develop to help ease dissonance but can be self-destructive

Cognitive Dissonance can be decreased by

Changing cognitions to be consistent

Addiding cognitions to bridge the gap

Chaning attitudes to be consistent with behavior

Changing behavior to be consistent with attitudes- hardest to do

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Choosing between equally attractive options produces dissonance (post-decisional dissonance)

Choices Influnece Preferences effect

Increased evaluations of chosen option

Decreased evaluations of rejected options

Process is unconscious and protects us from pain

Role of irrevocability

Is the decision final or can it be reversed

Increases dissonance

Low-ball technnique

Those who agree to an initial request often comply after additional costs are revealed

Why does low ball work?

1. Commitment to the requester and course of action

2. Anticipation of action

Dissonance experienced if one considers saying no/walking away

Entrapment

Process by which small decisions (and justification for decisions) lead to increasing ocmmitment to beliefs/ actions

If you make steps in one directions, it will lead you farther than you originally would’ve

Foot-in-the-door technique

Tendency for people who’ve first agreed to a small request (bait) to comply later with a larger request (goal)

Moral Disengagement

Selectively disengaging moral self-sanctions from harmful conduct

Ways to decrease dissonance about moral disengagement

1. Injurious conduct

   1. Moral justification- God said

   2. Euphemistic language- softens outcomes

   3. Displacement of responsibility- wasn’t me, following orders

2. Detrimental effects

   1. Minimizing consequences

3. Victim

   1. Dehumanization

   2. Attribution of blame- they were asking for it

Dissonance reduction via information distortion

Exposure to rational arguments on both sides of an issue

Supported beliefs: accepted because does not cause dissonance

Opposes beliefs: identified flaws and strengthens own beliefs due to dissonance

Belief perseverance

Tendency to hold onto beliefs even when faced with contradictory evidence

External justification

Justification for dissonant behavior that’s situationally-determined

Internal justification

reducing dissonance by changing attitudes to maintain consistency

Insufficient Justification

If external justification is insufficient, decrease dissonance by internally justifying behavior

“Saying is believing” paradigm

If external justifcation is insufficient, we come to belive our statements that contradict our preexisting attitudes

External Justification-rewards

Large: less effective for making people change their attitudes

Small: May be more effective for making npeople change attitudes

External Justification: punishments

Mild: More effective at changing attitudes

Severe: Does not lead to attitude changing

Effort Justification

Makes us view the goal as more worthwhile

ex. Hazing is going to make you value the group more

Dissonance and the self

Effects of dissonance are strongest when the self-concept is threatened

Cognitive Dissonance can be reduced by…

Drugs: Opioids, xanax, alcohol, tranquilizers

Drugs that decrease physiological arousal

Those with negative Self-Concept…

Feel no cognitive dissonance and do no self justification because feeling dumb, immoral, or confused is consistent with self-concept

Role of Self-Esteem

Low SE: There’s no inconsistency with SE being threatened

High SE: Experience the most dissonance when behaving in ways that are inconsistent with Self-concept

Secure vs defensive SE

Secure: stable- less likely to experience cognitive dissonance

Defensive: unstable- more likely

Self Affirmation Theory

Dissonance can be decreased by focusing on unrelated, positive aspects of the self- in other domains

When are the effects of dissonance the greatest?

1. Actions conflict with a central aspect of one’s self-concept

2. One feels personally responsible for their actions

3. One’s actions have serious consequences

4. The action is irrevocable

System Justification

Peole are motivated to see the existing political and social status quo as desirable, fair, and legitmate

• Those at bottom also justify it to make themselves feel better

Norms

Standards for accepted and expected behavior

Descriptive Norms

What most people do

Injunctive

Prescriptive: What one should do

Proscriptive: What one should not do

Social Contagion

Phenomenom: spread of behavior, emotions, and ideas through social networks

Conformity

Change in beliefs, behaviors, or opinions to be more consistent with others or normative standards

Chameleon Effect

Mirroring others’ nonverbal behaviors

People unconsciously mimick the behavior of people they like more often

Perceived liking and smoothness of interaction increases

Sherif (1936)

Participants estimated how far a dot moved privately and after discussing in groups

By session 3 they came to an average consensus

Testing norm formation

Showed how judgments are made in the absence of objective information

Asch (1956)

Participants were asked to identify which line was the same length as the target line

Gave wrong answer at least once 75%

Overall conformity rate 35%

What influences conformity? Size

Conformity rate increases linearly with each additional participant up to a certain point and levels off

What influences conformity? Unanimity

Unanimity:

When a group is unanimous, you get highest rates of conformity

What influences conformity? Members expertise

Informational

Normative- may not change private perceptions

What influences conformity? Homogeneity

Homogeneity:

The more similar a group is the higher homogeneity, more conformity

What influences conformity? Response

Public response: More likely to conform

Prior Commitment: Less llikely to conform

What influences conformity? Self-esteem

Self esteem and security/acceptance

Decrease SE, Increase conformity

Decrease self-efficacy, Increase conformity

What influences conformity? Age

18-25 is highest because life pressures

What influences conformity? Culture

Individualistic- on avg lower rates

Collectivistic- on avg higher rates

Bystander Effect

The presence of others decreases helpful actions

Why does bystander effect happen?

1. Diffusion of responsiblity

2. Evaluation Apprehension

3. Pluralistic ignorance

Evalutation Apprehension; bystander effect

Risk of embarrassment if situation isn’t an emergency

Diffusion of responsibility

A phenomenom where the awareness of other witnesses diffuses a bystander’s feelings of responsiblity to take action

Pluralistic Ignorance

The collective belief in a false norm created by the ambiguous behavior of others

Levels of Conformity

Internalization

Motivated by: Desire to be right/accurate

Depends on: Credibility of the source of influence

3 Characteristics of a group

1. Interact with and influence one another

2. Perceive selves as a group

   1. Share interdependent fates and or common goals

Performance alone vs. in the presence of others

Performance was enhanced in the presence of others

Observer present

Faster with familiar tasks

Slower with unfamiliar tasks

Alone

Slower with familiar task

Faster with unfamiliar task

Social facilitation

Presence of others strengthens the dominant response

If task was well learned:Social facilitation

If that was poorly learned: Social inhibition

Drive theory

Arousal from the mere presence of others strengthens the dominant response

Evaluation Apprehension Theory

Arousal from perceptions that others are evaluating one’s performance

Distraction-conflict theory

presence of others is distracting; conflict about where to direct attention increases arousal

Social Loafing

Tendency for people to exert less effort in additive, gorup tasks

When do people NOT socially loaf?

Task: Challenging, appealing, involving

Contributions: Individually identifiable, assign roles

Cohesiveness: Members are friends or family, Feel identitfied with or indispensable to group

Social Compensation

Working harder in group tasks to compensate for others’ inadequate contributions

Compensation increasing are likely if…

• Others expected to perform badly

• Outcomes of group performance seen as important

Deindividuation

Loss of self-awareness and evaluation apprehension - occurs in group contexts that foster responsiveness to group norms

What increases deindividuation

• group size

• anonymity

  • arousal and distraction

Transactive memory

Enhances group decision making

Knowledge sharing system where group members assume responsibility for different knowledge areas

Includes memory for who knows what

Common Knowledge effect

Limits group decision making

tendency for groups to spend increased time discussing shared info, everyone has access to

Group Polarization

Initial attitudes/ preferences of group members become increases extreme after a group discussion

Why does group polarization happen?

Informational influence

• Argument quality matters

• Active participation increases polarization

• We want to be right

Normative influence

• social comparison

• pluralistic influence

• We want to be liked

Group development phases

1. forming phase

2. storming phase

3. norming phase

4. performing

5. adjourning

Education or propaganda

Education: if you agree; knowledge

Propaganda: get you to do something

Two routes to persuasion

Central route: Relies on quality and relevant cues

Peripheral route: Relies on irrelvant cues

Peripheral route when ability to gauge argument quality is decreased

Ability is affected by:

Time constraints

Mental processing capability

Insufficient knowledge/info

Persuasion: Source

Credibility: Perceived expertise and trustworthiness

Easiness effect

Lay individuals when info is simp.ified, they will agree more with it, and their own opinions rather that of experts once you are simplifying content you are losing specificity

Sleeper effect

Effects of credibility decrease over time because we forget

Trustworthiness

Contradicting self-interest

• Trust increases if you argue against yourself

Unintentional persuasion

• mere exposure effect

Attractiveness and similarity

Are more persuasive

Message

Logical vs. emotional appeals

• rely on emotional appeals; works most effectively if ylu give them a solution

Moral emotions

Appeals to peoples morals

Audience

Depends on…

• self esteem

• mood

  • mindset

Reactance theory

We attempt to restore our sense of freedom if we encounter a blatant or coercive persuasive attempt

Attitude inoculation

Exposing people ot weak attacks on their attitudes to prepare for stronger attacks

Cult factors

Typicality of beliefs

size of group

negative outcomes

leader role

• but these do not actually distinguish cults from other groups

Outcome bias

judging a decision based on its outcome

Who joins? Perceptions

weak

vulnerable

suggestive

psychological problemsWh

Who joins? Reality

Young

educated

Socially unattached

History of seekership

Looking for answers/ meaning of life

Why Join?

Social connection

As people stopped having close relationships iwth others facilitated the upsrise of new religious movements

Uncertainity-Identity Theory

1. People are motivated to reduce self-uncertainty

2. Identifying with a group reduces self-uncertainty

3. highly cohesive groups are most effective at reducing self-uncertainty

   1. The more rejected someone feels the more drawn they are to extreme groups

Retaining numbers

Processes are on a continuum of noaml socialization to coercive practices

Not distinct from other groups

Labels and attitudes of cults

Cults is viewed much more negatively than new religous movement

Psychological effects of current members

Generally well-adjusted

May be survivorship biasP

Psychological effects of former members

Some experience adjustment difficulties after exiting

• Seems to vary based on departure method

Cults main takeaways

• Normal group processes in more extreme contexts

• Labels play a role

• People join for several reasons