PSY 2105 MT 1

What is Locke’s contributions

Tabula Rasa - born as a blank slate susceptible to environmental influences

What is Rousseau’s influences

Born with innate knowledge that emerge in a definite pattern over development

Nativistic

What is Herder’s contributions

Argued that individuals are born into definitive cultures
cultural relativism

What is Darwin’s contributions

Explains persistence of and change in a species as a function of selective survival
natural selection

Led to notion of recapitulation - idea that development of an individual replicated the development of the species

Contributed the method of a baby biography

What is Hall’s Contributions

Father of child psych

Contributed little but trained first gen child researchers, founded APA, invited Freud to lecture at Clark University

What is Baldwin’s contributions

First academic psychologist in Canada
Known for stage theory and the interaction between nature v nurture

zeitgeist - ideas shared by most scientists through a given time period, shifted to an environmental view through establishment of the basic tents of behaviorism

What is Watson’s contributions

Objected to the method of introspection, psychologists should study what is observable and measurable behaviors

Should utilize experimentation resting on objective and verifiable measures

Rested on Pavlovian ideas

What is Gesell’s contributions

Studied maturation assumed to shape human development and identified patterns of physical development in children

Defined statistical norms - a timetable of age ranges within which specific growth and behaviors would typically occur

What is Freud’s contributions

Describes the movement of libidinal energy from one erogenous zone to another as physical development proceeds

Five-stage theory of development

Notion of the Oedipus complex, repression, identification to the psychological lexicon

Interactionist perspective

What is Erikson’s contributions

Explained nature and process of child development as proceeding according to an epigenetic principle

During a lifespan, a person faces eight crises or turning points

How a crises is resolved contributes to identity across life

What are the 7 theorists associated with

Darwin - natural selection

Watson - Behaviourism

Gessel - norms

Vygotsky - cultural relativism

Rousseau - Nativism

Erikson - Psychosocial theory

Locke - Tabula Rasa

What are the 5 Freud’s psychosocial stages

Oral, Anal, Phalic, Latent, Genital

What is the oral psychosexual stage

Libido is located at the mouth, principle source of physical pleasure is sucking - birth to 1.5 years

What is the anal Freud psychosexual stage

Child attains physical pleasure first from having bowel movements and later from withholding them - 1.5 years to 3 years

What is the Phalic freud psychosexual stage

Libido moves to the genital area, children become sexually attracted to the parent of the opposite sex, but experience conflict as they realize the same-sex parent is a powerful rival. resolving this conflict involves forcing the libido into the unconscious and trying to adopt the characteristics of the same-sex parent - 3 years to 6 years

What is the latent freud psychosexual stage

Libido remains repressed and inactive - 6-12

What is the genital freud psychosexual stage

Libido re-emerges in the genital area; child again develops attraction toward opposite sex - this time directed toward peer

What is the 8 stages of Erikson’s psychosocial model

1. Basic trust v mistrust

2. Autonomy v shame

3. Initiative v guilt

4. industry v inferiority

5. Indentity v role confusion

6. Intimacy v isolation

7. Generativity v stagnation

8. Ego integrry v despair

What is the basic trust v mistrust stage of Erikson’s psychosocial stages

Birth to 1.5 years - infants must form trusting relationships with caregivers, if care is inadequate, mistrust develops instead

What is the autonomy v shame of Erikson’s psychosocial stages

1.5 to 3 years - as they master various skills, walking, toileting, and so forth - children begin to develop feelings of autonomy and self-control. Failure to meet expectations can lead to shame and doubt

What is the initiative v guilt of Erikson’s psychosocial stages

3-6 years - children take more initiative when dealing with their environment, but may experience guilt as a result of conflicts with caregiver

What is the Industry v inferiority of Erikson’s psychosocial stages

6-12 years - school-age children develop industry by successfully dealing with demands to learn new skills; failure leads to feelings of inferiority

What is the identity v role confusion of Erikson’s psychosocial stages

12-18 years - teenagers must develop a sense of identity in various areas, such as occupation and gender, or risk role confusion in adulthood

What is the intimacy v isolation of Erikson’s psychosocial stages

Young adult - young adults must form intimate relationships or suffer from loneliness and isolation

What is the generativity v stagnation of Erikson’s psychosocial stages

Adult - adults must find ways to support future generations, through child rearing or other productive activities or come to a standstill in their lives

What is the ego integirity v despair of Erikson’s psychosocial stages

Older adult - older adults must come to feel sense of fulfillment in life or experience despair as they face death

What are the 3 reoccuring issues in child psych

nature v nurture

Continuity v discontinuity

Normative v idiographic development

What is the nature v nurture issue

Unknown what is innate and what is learned/experienced environmentally

What is the continuity v discontinuity issue

Nature of change and the connectedness or predictability of development

Constant/smooth or uneven/abrupt

What is the normative v idiographic development issue

Normative - average child relies on biological explanations

Idiographic - individuals directs attention to environmental and learning influences

• Question of universals of development

What is Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

• Seeks to explore and explain the role of cognition in human adaptation to the environment

• Developed the clinical method, semi structured interview with questions to probe a child’s mind

• Cognitive structures of infancy are called schemes

• Cognitive stage theory

  • Information processing models

Who invented schemes

Piaget

What are the stages of the cognitive stage theory by Piaget

• Sensorimotor

• Preoperational

• Concrete

• Formal

What is the Sensorimotor stage of cognitive stage theory

Birth through age 2

Infant schemes are simple reflexes and knowledge reflects interactions with people and objects

What is the preoperational stage of cognitive stage theory

Age 2 to 6

Child begins to use symbols to represent the world cognitivelyW

What is the Concrete stage of cogntive stage theory

Age 6 to 12

Child performs mental operations and logical problem solving

What is the formal stage of cognitive stage theory

Age 12 through adulthood

Child can use formal problem solving and higher level abstract thinking

What is the sociocultural approach theory

Cognitive development theories described an independently functioning child, and see change as an internally driven process

• Vygotsky

• Brofenbrenner

What is Vygotsky’s theory of sociocultural development

Strongly influenced by the Marxist views of socialism and collectivism, particularly notions of individual sacrifice for the good of whole

Mental development emerged through social interaction, culturally specific, product of cultural differences

Thinking is a tool of adaptation guided through interactions with more experienced members of society

What is Brofenbrenner’’s ecological model of sociocultural development

Understanding the child requires fitting into the child’ surroundings

What are the 4 systems of Brofenbrenner’’s ecological model

Microsystem - people and objects in the immediate environment

Mesosystem - influence of microsystems on each other

Exosystem - Social, environmental and gov forces that indirectly influence the individual

Macrosystem - subcultures and cultures in which the other three are imbedded

What are the 3 main theories of child psych

Cognitive development

Sociocultural Approach

Environmental learning

What is environmental learning approach

Learning is relatively permanent change in behavior that results from practice or experience

• Respondene and operant behaviors

• Social learning theory

• Reciprocal determinism

What is respondent and operant behaviors - environmental learning approach

B.F Skinner argued that all behaviors can be classified as either respondent or operant

• Respondent - Based on reflexes

• Operant - voluntary responses controlled by effects

What is social learning theory - environmental learning approach

Attention, retetention, production, motivation - Bandura

• Observational learning

• Vicarious reinforcement/vicarious punishment effects limitation and response inhibition

What is reciprocal determinism - environmental learning approach

Interactional view: reciprocal determinism - development is reciprocally determined as the person, behavior and environment interact

Explain the connection between behavior and evolution

Development is an outcome of both immediate and evolutionary factors 

• Recent experiences and the conditions of the organism + behaviors originating in the evolutionary past that contributed to survival 

What is classical ethology

Classical ethologists (e.g., Tinbergen and Lorenz) have identified four characteristic qualities of innate behaviours: they are universal, require no learning or experience, are stereotyped, and are only minimally affected by environmental influences. 

• Model action patterns - complex sequences of innate behavior

• Innate releasing mechanisms - model action patterns triggered by innate releasing mechanisms

  • Sensitive period - mechanisms by which biological factors may influence learning

What is Lorenz view on classical ethology

Studies of imprinting, or biological process seen in some species in which the young acquire an emotional attachment to the mother through following, exemplify the notion of a sensitive period - utilizing naturalistic observations of animals to explore imprinting and attachment

What are the 3 types of research

Descriptive

Correlational

Experimental

What are the 4 major research designs

• Longitudinal

• Cross-sequential

• Cross-cultural

  • Micro genetic

Explain culture in research

Cross-cultural studeies - examine impact of culture on development process and outcomes

Cultural psych - researchers study a single culture from perspective of members of that culture with the goal of identifying the values and practices important to the culture

What is non human research

Comparative research - study conducted with nonhuman species to provide information relevant to human development

what is physiological research

methods allow researchers to measure changes in heart rate, salivary cortisol, etc

What is a potential risk of research

Possible physical injury, psychological harm, violations of privacy, codes of ethical standards

What is cell division

Core of genetic material is within the nucleus and forms 23 pairs of chromosomes 

• Autosomes are the 22 pairs of human chromosomes that are similar to one another 

• Sex chromosomes are those which determine sex 

These cells come in two basic types: body cells which reproduce themselves through mitosis and germ cells which reproduce through meiosis 

What is mitosis

Cell divides into two identical daughter cells W

What is meiosis

results in four gametes, sperm or ova each with hald the number of chromosomes of the parent cell and each different and unique

What is the breakdown of human chromosomes

23 pairs - totaling to 46

Autosomes are the 22 pairs of chromosomes that are similar to one another

Sex chromosomes are those which determine sex

Explain crossing over in the sense of genetic exchange

Genetic exchange of material between pairs of chromosomes during meiosis, resulting in four different strands

What is inside the chromosome

• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) resembles a double helix, each unit of the helix is termed a nucleotide 

• A gene is a section of DNA on the chromosome that codes for the production of proteins; a gene contains 1000 nucleotides 

  • Number and sequencing of those nucleotides within the genes and the location of the gene on the chromosome are critical in determining who we become  

    • Alleles are genes for the same trait located in the same place on a pair of chromosomes  

What is Mendel’s studies

Promoted principle of dominance - notion that alleles of a trait are not equal - one manifestation or phenotype is more likely to occur while oehter are less likely to become manifest

• Dominant gene - powerful allele whose characteristics are expressed in the phenotype regardless of the allele with which it is paired

• Recessive gene - relatively weak allele whose characteristics are expressed in the phenotype only when paired with another recessive gene

• Polygenic inheritance - the case in which a trait is determined by a number of genes

• Incomplete dominance - the case in which a dominant gene does not completely suppress the effect of a recessive gene

• Codominance - the case in which both alleles are dominant and each is completely expressed in phenotype

What is an allele

Are genes for the same trait located in the same place on a pair of chromosomes

What are the 5 types of gene

Dominant

Recessive

Polygenic inheritance

Incomplete dominance

Codominance

What are structural defects in the chromosomes

Turner’s syndrome

Klinefelter’s syndrome

Multiple Y’s syndrome

Fragile x Syndrome

• After down syndrome, fragile x syndrome is the most common cause of mental challenges

How do you do research on genes

Family studies - look for continuities of characteristics over generations of the same family

• at risk of confounding nature and nurture

Adoption studies - disentangle nature and nurture by comparing adopted children to their bio parents and their adoptive parents

Twin studies

Combined twin and adoption studies - reared apart

What is Gottesman’s limit-setting model

Genes set parameters for developmental potentials; environments then impact where the individual will fall within the genetically set boundaries 

What is Scarr’s niche-picking model

• Argues genes exert more influence on developmental outcomes than is suggested by the parameter setting model proposed by Gottesman

• Genes are determinants of environments; they initially operate in a passive fashion, then an evocative manner and finally an active role

  • The passive gene-environment correlation is a situation in which genes and environment affect development similarly because the genes the child receives from the parents are compatible with the environment the parent provides

  • Evocative gene-environment correlation - situation in which and environment affect development similarly because genetically set predispositions of the child elicit compatible experiences from the environment

  • Active gene-environment correlation - genes and environment affect development similarly because children actively seek out experiences that are compatible with their genetic predispositions

what are the 3 different gene-environments according to Scarr

• The passive gene-environment correlation is a situation in which genes and environment affect development similarly because the genes the child receives from the parents are compatible with the environment the parent provides

• Evocative gene-environment correlation - situation in which and environment affect development similarly because genetically set predispositions of the child elicit compatible experiences from the environment

• Active gene-environment correlation - genes and environment affect development similarly because children actively seek out experiences that are compatible with their genetic predispositions

What is Plomin’s environmental-genetics mode

• Notion of nonshared environments - concept used in behavior genetics to refer to presumed aspects of the environment that children experience differently

  • Even children in the same family have unique environments - parents react differently

  • To plomin, the source of difference is genetic

What is the period of the zygote

Zygote – 1-2 weeks 

• Zygote travels down fallopian tube and implants itself 

  • Transform from a solid mass of cells into two group of specialized cells, one becomes the embryo, the latter becomes the amniotic sac, placenta and the umbilical cord 

What is the period of the embryo

Embryo – 3-8weeks 

• Once implantation is complete, the embryo is extremely vulnerable to environmental threats 

• During this stage, the embryo divides into three layers 

  • Endodermal 

  • Ectodermal 

  • Mesodermal 

    • These layers will become, respectively, most of the internal organs and glands, the systems that link the person to the world, and the muscles bones and heart 

  • By the end of the phase, the embryo has a head eyes, ears a heart, limbs toes and fingers 

What are the 3 layers the embryo divides into

Endodermal

ectodermal

Mesodermal

What is the period of the fetus

• Incredible increase in size of all parts of organism 

• The sex if the fetus is apparent at 16 weeks 

• By the 3^rd month the fetus is able to make a fist and react to touch, by the 7^th a touch on the fetus' lips elicits a sucking reflex 

• 23 or 24 weeks the fetus is viable to survive outside the uterus 

  • Development of air sacs in the lungs, ability to digest food, and capacity to regulate temperature are still challenges for the fetus at this point; each of these functions improves the longer the fetus remains in utero. 

What is teratology

• Nicotine is used by about 5% of pregnant women. That usage puts their fetus at risk for small size, prematurity, stillbirth, and cancer, as well as for social and behavioural problems and delays in language and cognitive development.  

• Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (a series of features in the infant and child, including facial malformations and other physical and mental disabilities) and the less serious Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder or FAE (Fetal Alcohol Effects) are the outcome of alcohol use during pregnancy and can be devastating 

• Only Down syndrome and spina bifida occur more frequently. 

  • Rubella can result in blindness, deafness, and mental retardation. Herpes can also result in blindness, mental retardation, and encephalitis. HIV, syphilis, and gonorrhea complete of the list of examples of the teratogenic diseases. 

How does nutrition affect pregnancy

• Fetal development is contingent upon maternal nutrition both during and prior to the pregnancy. 

• Malnutrition is not just a matter of quantity; mothers and babies have specific dietary needs that if not met can have serious repercussions. 

•  deficits in iron result in fetal anemia and folic acid deficits are associated with anencephaly and spina bifida. 

• if nutritional deficits continue into infancy and childhood, there is significant risk that the child will be inattentive, unresponsive, and apathetic. 

• Nutritional problems can also be a matter of excess; associations have been found between excess vitamin A and eye, brain and spinal cord damages. Pregnant women are also advised to avoid certain foods because the risks of food poisoning are worse for the fetus than the mother

How does maternal anxiety and stress affect pregnancy

Maternal anxiety has been found to be correlated with newborn irritability, sleep problems, childhood (age four) behavioural problems, and congenital anomalies.  

How does parental age affect pregnancy

The optimal age for childbearing falls between 20 and 34. There has been a significant decrease in the number of teenage mothers, but a significant increase in the mothers over 35 years of age.  

How do you prevent issues in a pregnancy

Attention to pre-pregnancy health and habits (think diet and smoking), adequate prenatal care, and the use of genetic counselling (the practice of advising prospective parents about genetic diseases and the likelihood of their occurrence) can all help limit the likelihood of birth defects. 

How do you screen abnormalities in a pregnancy

• Ultra sound imaging - noninvasive procedure for detecting physical defects in the fetus which uses sound like waves to provide a picture of the fetus and its environment – allows assessment of fetal age and sex by twenty weeks 

• Amniocentesis – insertion of a needle into uterus to collect amniotic fluid and fatal cells – shows damage of organs and genetic defects 

• Chronic villus sampling – used to collect cells from a part of the placenta – show significant chromosomal or DNA based problems 

• Test tube sampling – assess potential of serious defects 

What is treatment for issues in pregnancy

• Medical therapy, surgery, genetic manipulation 

• Both mother and fetus can receive medical treatment 

What are ethical considerations with pregnancy

Termination of pregnancy is a volatile issue even when severe abnormalities are present. Each test carries some level of risk and treatment interventions may be more risky yet