Science

Mineral

Anything natural inorganic substance with a fixed chemical formula and atomic structure.

Ore

A concentration of minerals that can be extracted from, typically used in a business/financial sense.

Renewable Resource

A natural resource that can be replaced a faster rate than which the it is consumed on a human time-frame, cannot be exhausted easily.. (solar, wind)

Non-renewable Resource

A resource that isn't replenished faster than it is consumed, once extracted its gone forever. (bauxite, iron)

Why is it renewable?

Continuous, self-sustaining, and part of planetary cycles, independent to human activity.

Why is it non-renewable?

Slow geological transformations, timeframe does not match modern consumption.

Conditionally Renewable Resource

A resource that can regenerate but only under specific environmental conditions. (freshwater, soil)

Why are fish stocks conditionally renewable?

fish stocks naturally replenish themselves through reproduction, but only if they are not overexploited, currently fishing limits prevent that.

Resource

Materials or tools that can achieve a particular purpose.

Reserve

Mineable portion of identified resource.

Resource Life (years)

total reserves / annual production rate

Homeostasis

The maintenance of an internal stable environment despite external change.

Factors in the body needing stable condition

Temperature (~37)

Glucose (stable is 4/mmol)

pH levels

Water levels

O2 and CO2

Why do we need homeostasis?

Enzymes, which carry important processes for bodily function, denature (lost shape) if temperature is not regulated.

Cells cannot do chemical reactions if pH levels are too high or low. Cells also burst or shrivel without the right amount of water.

Because cells and enzymes don't work, organs don't function and everything falls apart.

Vasodilation

Response to excessive heat, where blood vessels widen and go to surface of the skin to facilitate evaporation, which cools the body.

Vasoconstriction

Response to excessive coldness, where the blood vessels narrow and move further into the body to prevent evaporation of water in blood.

Stimulus

Is a change in the environment. (temperature, sound, pain, pressure)

Negative Feedback Loop

Counteracts a change in the system. (e.g. blood sugar levels).

Positive Feedback Loop

Accelerate a change to remove it. (e.g. childbirth, blood clots)

Importance of feedback loops

Feedback loops help maintain homeostasis.

Example of Positive Feedback

In order to close an abrasion, the damaged blood vessels recruit platelets which send chemical signals to bring more platelets to stop the bleeding.

Example of Negative Feedback

Blood glucose levels: brain detects increase in BGL --> pancrea releases insulin --> insulin in bloodstream indicates liver to convert glucose into glycogen --> brain detects decrease --> pancreas stop releasing insulin --> liver converts stored glycogen into glucose :repeat

How can copper be extracted?

1. Grind sulphide ores.

2. Mix water and sulfuric acid to create a frothy concoction.

3. Heat the mixture until boiling point.

4. Drain the top clear blue liquid into another beaker.

5. Do electrolysis by connecting and anode and cathode to the DC current, and waiting for the cathode (in the clear blue solution) to turn into copper. (99.99% pure)

What coordinates the bodies' response?

Nervous and endocrine system.

What does the nervous system use to coordinate responses to stimuli?

CNS (central: spine, brain (control centre)) and PNS (peripheral: nerves (cables)):

Nerves and neurons and electric impulses.

What does the endocrine system use to coordinate responses to stimuli?

Pituitary glands (secrete growth hormone) and hypothalamus:

Endocrine glands, bloodstream, and hormones.

Nervous system process and example

stimulus --> receptor --> CNS --> effector (receives instruction) --> response

e.g. reflexes

Endocrine system process and example

stimulus detected --> hormone secretion --> transported circulatory --> affect target cells --> chemical reaction

+ feedback loops

e.g. blood glucose levels

What connects the nervous and endocrine system?

Hypothalamus

Differences between the nervous and endocrine system?

Endocrine:

- slower, longer-lasting effects

Nervous:

- quick, short-lasting responses

Use of both the nervous and endocrine system?

Sleep

Nervous system:

- cardinal clock (internal biological clock in hypothalamus)

- blocks out background noise/sensory info

- closes eyelids

Endocrine System:

- releases melatonin

- which lowers alertness and core body temperature

Commonalities of the nervous and endocrine system?

Detect stimuli, coordinate responses, maintain homeostasis.

How does the nervous system maintain homeostasis?

Uses sensory cells and other things to

e.g. ramps up activity during exercise, like heartbeat, dilating airways, releasing energy.

Critical mineral

A resource that is essential for green energy, modern tech and national security. This drives demand, but it also means they're vulnerable to supply disruptions.

e.g. lithium

Why is lithium a critical mineral?

Lithium is essential for technologies, like in electric vehicles and batteries and high tech manufacturing, but its global supply is concentrated in certain countries like China dn AUS and faces economic and geopolitical risks.

AUS mineral products.

Zinc --> Sunscreen

Lithium --> battery

How does zinc become sunscreen?

1. Raw zinc is mined, melted and oxidised to produce ZnO (zinc oxide).

2. A water and/or oil phase is created as a base.

3. The zinc oxide is mixed with this base through emulsification, ensuring the oil and water don't separate.

4. It gets further processes into a cream/lotion and goes through quality control.

5. Packaged and shelved.

Mine --> manufacturer --> business --> supermarket

How did the indigenous use Ochre

Ochre is a mineral/rock that was used to create natural pigments.

It was used to paint and tell stories.

It could depict spirits and totems, and allowed people to communicate in a way that wasn't limited orally.

How did the indigenous use Resin

Resin was used as a glue for things like tools.

It was retrieved from tree sap and spinifex grass.

It could be heated to be malleable, is sticky, can harden and was waterproof, making it a good material.

Infectious Disease

A disease caused by pathogens that can be spread to other organisms, via vectors, indirect or direct contact.

Disease

An illness or condition that affects an organism's body, body parts, or its organ function.

Non-infectious

Disease that is not induced by pathogens and cannot be spread, it is caused by genetic, lifestyle and environmental factors.

Protozoa

Eukaryotic and unicellular organisms that use an intermediate host. (some protozoa are pathogenic)

e.g. malaria, giardia

Pathogens

protozoa, bacteria, parasites, viruses and fungi

Bacteria

Single celled, can be treated with antibiotics, they divide quickly through binary fission.

e.g. common cold, tuberculosis

Virus

Non-living particles that need host cells, require vaccines for treatment.

e.g. COVID, influenza

Fungi

Uni and multicellular organisms (some are pathogenic), absorb nutrients from the host, many form branching threads to spread and use spores.

e.g. athlete's foot, ringworm

Parasite

Live on hosts and absorb their nutrients.

e.g. head lice, tapeworms

Direct transmission

Immediate transfer of infectious agent from an infectious host or reservoir to an appropriate entry point through which human infection can take place.

e.g. HIV, ebola

Indirect transmission

Without direct contact, can be airborne, vector borne, or vehicle borne.

Vector transmission

Another organism transmits disease from one person to another. (insect, animal)

e.g. malaria, lyme disease

Airborne transmission

Long distant droplets/dust to a suitable entry point like spores or respiratory tract.

e.g. tuberculosis, measles

Vehicle-borne transmission

Contaminated materials.

e.g. water, food, surface, air

Food/water-borne transmission

In water, entering via suitable entry point like respiratory tract.

e.g. cholera, salmonella

Environmental impacts of extracting resources.

Soil degradation --> removing vegetation and top soil

Habitat loss --> deforestation, clearing lands

Air pollution --> heavy machinery releases greenhouse gases and sulfur dioxide

Water pollution --> chemicals from machinery can contaminate nearby waterbodies, like rivers and ground water

Evaluate environmental impact of extracting and using coal

Extracting:

- release greenhouse gases through coal seams

- massive land area cleared, habitat loss and deforestation

Using (burning in coal fired plants)

- inordinate release of CO2, driving global warming

- sulfur dioxide --> acid rain --> air pollution

- toxic waste from fly ash

groups

groups in a periodic table are vertical and establish the number of valence electrons

period

periods in a periodic table are horizontal and tell how many shells are in the atom

infectious disease transmission

Infectious diseases are transmitted through two primary pathways: direct transmission and indirect transmission

how can disease transmission be reduced?

Immunizations, like vaccination, sanitasian, respiratory ettiquitte, and not going out when ur sick, proper isolation.

1st, 2nd, 3rd line

non-specific, non-specific, specific

1st line: skin

- skin (tough, intact, waterproof) --> sweat (salty), microflora secretion and fatty acids

1st line: acid

- acid (in stomach) --> destroys swallowed pathogens

2nd line of defence:

inflammation, phagocytosis, lymph system, cell death

1st line: alkali

- alkali (in small intestine) --> destroys acid resistance pathogens

1st line: tears, saliva and urine

- tears, saliva (sterile), urine (sterile) --> enzymes and lysosymes which dissolve bacteria membranes (urine + saliva --> wash out bacteria because they're sterile)

1st line: mucous membrane

- mucous membrane (cells lining respiratory tract and reproductive system) --> secrete mucous which traps pathogens

1st line: cillia

- cillia (in respiratory) --> move pathogens away from lungs

1st line of defense: barriers

mucous membrane, skin, cillia, tears, saliva, urine, alkali, acid

2nd line: inflammation

Occurs at site of infection, where it swells and reddens

how inflammation response works

injured/infected cells release histamines --> dilated blood vessels allows blood cells to move in, in larger quantities

2nd line: phagocytosis

white blood cells (macrophages and neutrophils) attack pathogens by changing their shape and surrounding them

they release enzymes which destroy the pathogen

2nd line: lymph node

filter cell debris, returns intercellular liquid to blood, create lymphocytes (T-cells) responsible for immune system, they're gathered up in large amount in the lymph node, and the pathogen is lowkey cooked if it goes there

2nd line: lymph node summary

lymph nodes (tubes all around the body) serve as a one way drainage system which filter and destroy waste particles

2nd line: cell death

white blood cells surround a pathogen to form a cyst, they block the pathogens food supply but also block it for themselves and die

3rd line of defense

the immune system

innate immunity: always present responses to pathogens

aquired immunity: adapted responses to pathogens

3rd line: lymphocytes

Also known as T-cells, killer T, memory T, helper T, niave T --> the last line, otherwise outside help is requires

T cell are aquired immunity, and natural killer cells are innate immunity

How do vaccines work?

Preexposure to infectious disease

1. introduce an antigen into the body in an unharmful form (e.g. crushed)

2. immune system (B and T cells) creates antibodies easily once introduced

3. memory cells are created to remember shape of cell and be prepared for next time

4. next time pathogen comes, theres a faster and more efficient response

valency

the combining capacity of an atom, measuring how many chemical bonds it can form with other atoms to achieve a stable electronic configuration

noble gas configuration

group 18, has a full outer shell of 8 electrons (octet rule)

link between noble gas configuration, stability and bonding

the noble gas configuration means an atom has a full outer shells, which means its stable and has a valency of 0, all atoms aim to be this way as it it energetically favourable

anions

in ionic bonding, non metals form anions (negative charge) --> gain electron

cations

in ionic bonding, metals form cations (positive charge) --> lost electron

ionic bonding

ionic bonding occurs when a metal reacts with a non-metal. electrons are transferred from the metal to the non-metal.

epidemic

A sudden, unexpected increase in the number of cases of a disease above what is normally or expectedly seen within a specific population or region.

pandemic

An epidemic that has spread across multiple countries, continents, or the entire globe, usually affecting a large number of people

endemic

A disease or condition that is constantly and predictably present at a baseline level within a specific geographic area or population group

e.g. malaria in africa

similarities between endemic, epidemic and pandemic

involve spread of infectious disease, impacts population and to guide public healthcare responses

differences between endemic, epidemic and pandemic

endemic: predictable for healthcare systems, confined to certain group (mostly)

epidemic: sudden, unexpected increase, not seen in specific community

pandemic: affects vast number of people, exponential growth

factors influencing pandemics, epidemics and endemic

pathogen mutations, acceleration of transmission, poor public health infrastructure, poor sanitation, water contamination, human mobility, zoonotic (animal virus to human), population density, low vaccination

covalent boding

covalent bonding is a type of chemical bond between non-metals in which valence electrons are shared to achieve stable configuration.

The electrons are attracted to each others nuclei and get stuck.

why do atoms share electrons in covalent bonds?

Neither atom is strong enough to pull electrons from another.

diatomic elements

hydrogen, nitrogen, fluorine, oxygen, iodine, chlorine, bromine

single, double and triple bonds

single bond has 1 pair shared

double bond has 2 pairs shared

triple bond has 3 pairs shared

*pair = 2 electrons*

vaccination

Vaccination is the process of administering a vaccine to stimulate the body's immune system to develop protection against a particular infectious disease.

how do vaccines reduce incidence and severity of a disease?

Reduces transmission, the likelihood of vaccinated people developing the disease, and the risk of severe illness when infection occurs because the body's adapted method of fighting disease through the vaccine. Community immunity is not guaranteed because some people are vaccinated. Its effectiveness depends on the disease, the vaccine and the proportion of people with effective immunity.

Why can multiple vaccine doses be needed?

- Initial doses: help build an immune response.

- Additional doses: can strengthen or complete that response.

- Booster doses: can restore or improve protection when immunity has waned.

Australian National Immunisation programs

The Australian National Immunisation Program provides a schedule of recommended vaccinations at particular ages and recommended number of doses. It is a guideline that has been supported by research to give vaccination at optimal times for most safety against diseases, not 100% effective, because of pathogen mutations, waning immunity and just poor natural immunity.

metallic bond

A metallic bond occurs between two metals which allow their electrons to become delocalised in order to achieve a stable configuration.

Characteristics of metalic bond

• Positive atoms ions with delocalised electrons

• electrostatic connection from all ends because positive ions attract to electrons and are held together

• metal cation but overall neutral charge in metal

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