Psych 250 Exam 3

5 major physical changes in adolescence

1. growth spurt- girls before boys

2. development of primary sex characteristics- ovaries, testes

3. development of secondary sex characteristics- acne, facial hair, voice lowering

4. changes in body composition- distribution of fat and muscle changes

5. changes in circulation and respiration- gets better during puberty

hormonal changes and mood (Larson & Richards)

adolescents get a pager, when it beeps they write down what they’re feeling & the setting, teens are more “negative and moody”, 12-16yrs, moodier in adult-like settings

the interaction between hormones and cultural role/emotional context play a role

adolescent growth spurt

a sudden rapid period of physical growth during puberty

average female growth spurt is 2 years earlier than males (10 ½ yrs for females, 12 ½ yrs for males)

sequence is weight, height, muscle

growth is asymmetrical

head, hands, feet → arms and legs → trunk

extremities first (lateral) then medial

body composition

girls gain more fat, boys gain more muscle

circulatory and respiratory changes in adolescence

lungs and heart increase in size and capacity

exercise tolerance increase

primary vs secondary sex characteristics

• primary- body parts directly involved in reproduction (testicles, ovaries)

• secondary- traits not necessary for reproduction (body odor, acne, breast development, deepening voice)

Menarche

first period, typcially occurs between 10 & 15 years (average= 12yrs)

spermarche

first ejaculation, occurs between 12 & 16 years (average= 13 years)

the secular trend

age of monarchy (first period) decreases with time (average becomes younger), due to nutrition, body fat, activity, etc

earlier ages more likely to get cv disease, obesity, miscarriage, cancers (breast)- because stress! (body transforms stress/ cortisol into estrogen)

phase delay

most teenagers prefer to stay up late and sleep in late

nighttime increase in melatonin begins 2 hrs later in teens

sleep deprivation side effects

mood disordrs, insomnia, falling asleep at the wheel

factors affecting timing and tempo of puberty

• genes- 2/3 variation in timing of puberty is genetic (follow parents)

• body fat- need enough body fat to get period (~100lbs)

• hormones- milk, cattle, etc have effects; leptin is a big factor (helps start off puberty)

• stress- family environment (early onset of puberty in girls= family conflict, divorce, sexual abuse, bad neighborhood, unrelated man at home) low conflict= layer puberty

belsky et al on timing and tempo of puberty

physical punishment/little warmth = 10 years later the kid would reach puberty earlier on average

harsh conditions = younger age of reproduction

early vs late maturation

girls

• early: unpopular, withdrawn, low self confidence, deviant, negative body image, more long-term problems (seen as a disadvantage)

• late: popular, sociable, lively, school leaders, positive self image

boys

• early- popular, confident, independent, positive body image, deviant (seen as better)

• late: unpopular, anxious, attention-seeking, negative body image, intellectual curiosity

trends in sexual activity

teens today are less sexually active than previous cohorts (54% 1991, 32% 2024)

• historic trends for first sex at younger ages reversed during the 2010s

• condom use, sti testing, hiv testing declines

• gender gap in sexual activity has narrowed

bearman et al on sexual partners

one midwest high school found few sexually active teens has multiple partners, however only 1/3 of relationships lasted 6 months

• one infected person in the network of sexual activity could infect the entire school

3 major stages of coming out

1. awareness of being different (6-12yo, 10yo= sexual questioning)

2. exploration of same sex & other sex attraction (early adolescence, 11-12yo M, 14yo F)

3. coming out to others & self acceptance (late adolescence, early adulthood)

sexual orientation is..

fluid during the teen years. 1 in 4 teens identify as LGBTQ

5 major changes in adolescent thinking

1. thinking about possibilities

2. thinking about abstract concepts (no longer concrete- doesn’t have to be in front of you)

3. thinking about thinking (metacognition, ex study strategies)

4. thinking in multiple dimensions (not only one way of thinking, ex sarcasm)

5. thinking in relative (question/assertions) vs absolute (all or nothing) terms

Piagets formal operations

• thinking is abstract- no longer tied to concrete/personal experiences (ex balance scale problem, used prior knowledge)

• adolescents can now engage in hypothetical thought- reasoning about if-then propositions that do not reflect reality

  • if dogs are bigger than elephants, and mice are bigger than dogs, are elephants smaller than mice? can solve this now!

balance scale problem

“balance the scale”

weight x distance has to be equal

-3-5yo randomly hang weights

-7yo recognize weights need to be equal, don’t think about distance

-11yo recognize distance but not weight

-13yo recognizes relationship between weight and distance

dual process model

there are two pathways in the brain

• analytic- logical, hypothetical, deductive

• intuitive- emotional, experiential

  • quick and powerful, but may be illogical

adolescents tend to favor intuitive rather than analytical

klaczynski on dual process model

presented logic problems to 9, 12, 15 yo

• almost every adolescent was analytical on some problems but not others. 73% made at least one analytic error where they intuitively jumped to the wrong conclusion (ex a lily pad doubles in size each day)

• logical thinking improved with age and education

• we have a capacity to think logically, but don’t always do it

adolescent egocentrism

an inability to distinguish between one’s own perceptions of what others think about you and what others actually think about you (lack self awareness, think everyone cares)

byproducts of adolescent egocentrism

• personal fable- teens belief that they are so unique that no one can possibly understand their thoughts, feelings or experiences

• invincibility fable- believe that one is immune to common dangers or threats

• imaginary audience- belief that they are the focus of everyone else’s attention and concern

more in girls, peaks in adolescence then declines, may be protective/adaptive

digital natives

teens who regularly use their phones to access the internet and social media

• almost all 13-17yo have access to a smartphone and go online everyday

• almost 50% of teens report using the internet almost constantly, girls having highest usage

Dr Jean Twenge interview

• teens on phones postpone sex, get less sleep, delay getting drivers license, getting a job, spending more time with parents, drinking alcohol less

  • not experiencing independence

  • why? smaller families, always on phones

• all screen activities linked to unhappiness

facebook study

gave a group of teens facebook when it first came out (findings could be worse today)

• 2% increase in clinical depression (300k young adults)

• adolescents more vulnerable (F 11-15yo, M 14-15yo)

risk taking and brain region associations

limbic system- processes emotional stimuli (matures at puberty-ventral striatum)

prefrontal cortex- decision-making & impulse control, does not mature until 25yo

tension between these two regions may explain why many teens engage in risk taking

albert, chen & steinberg study on risky decisions

risky decisions when peers watching was much higher compared to when doing the driving simulation alone

number of crashes & riskiness increases in adolescents when in groups, about the same in young adults and adults when comparing groups to alone play

emotional & contextual factors add to risk taking

• sensation-seeking- stays increased despite aging

• lack of parental supervision, peer pressure

adolescents become less impulsive with age but they still enjoy the thrill of a new sensation

Podcast “understanding the teenage brain”

teens are prone to high-risk behaviors

-prefrontal cortex is immature, prone for high risk

-ventral striatum is more excited by reward than consequence

-amygdala is more sensitive and impulsive

-hippocampus is big on the learning curve

peaks between 16-18yo, then declines

Kinsler et al summary

-sexual scripting: specific scripts from sexual media

• acquisition- can provide unknown scripts

• activation- can further explain/prime scripts

• application- can encourage use of scripts by portraying behaviors as normative, acceptable & rewarding

-80% of teens report learning about sex from tv and media

• not all bad- can teach about safety and well-being too

erikson’s theory: identity vs role confusion

-identity

• defining who you are, what you value and where you will go in life

• commitment: vocation, personal relationships, sexual orientation, ethnic, political & religious ideology

• resolution of identity crisis or exploration

-role confusion

• lack of clear definition of self

• restricted exploration of adolescence; earlier psychosocial conflicts not resolves, society restricts choices

identity statuses (Marcia)

• identity achievement- high level of commitment, high level of exploration (where you want to be)

• moratorium- low level of commitment, high level of exploration (actively exploring options)

• foreclosure- high level of commitment, low level of exploration (committed to a similar identity- you are a doctor bc your family is in med field)

• role confusion- low level of commitment, low level of exploration (identity issues)

ethnic identity

a persons sense of identity concerning ancestry or ethnic group membership (early-middle adolescence)

• strength of identification'

• self-labeling

• sense of belonging

• preference for group

• ethnic interest & knowledge

• group involvement

• higher self-esteem, better adjusted when you like/are actively a part of your group

multidimensional model of racial identity

• racial centrality- how important race is in defining your identity

• private regard- how do you feel about being a member of your race

• public regard-how you think others view your race

4 areas of identity formation (chavous et al)

• buffering/defensive- 29%

• low connectedness/high affinity-21%

• idealized- 31%

• alienated- 19%

alienated most disengaged from school, most likely to drop out

buffering least likely to drop out, most likely to be in college 2 years after graduation, success attributed to ethnic pride & real expectations about facing discrimination

dimensions of parent-adolescent closeness

• communication- parent:teen open-talk

• support- reliance

• connectedness- emotionally close

• control (young) vs monitoring (adolescence, best deterrence for delinquency)

best predictor of mental health

quality of the parent-child relationship

parent-child conflict

-peaks during tween years (13-14 M, 11-12 F), declines in late adolescence

-greatest between mothers and daughters

-involved bickering- repeated petty arguments (clothes, school, chores, etc)

-represents teens desire for independence

why do parents and teens fight

-stems from different perspectives

-parents see conflict as right and wrong, teens see if as a matter of personal choice

conflict is a sign of closeness

cliques vs crowds

-cliques- small groups of good friends that share similar attitudes, values & family background characteristics (social skills and intimacy)

-crowds- larger more loosely organized groups based on reputation (jocks, nerds, populars, etc) (identity and self-concept)

selection vs facilitation

-selection- picking someone because you want to (birds of a feather flock together, regarding antisocial behavior)

-facilitation-peer influence, join in then find it interesting, stronger for day-to-day preferences

selection & facilitation about equal when it comes to drug use

changes in crowds over time

crowds & peer pressure significance peaks early in high school, declines by 12th grade as romantic relationships become more important

anxiety and depression in adolescence

1 in 5 have a diagnosed mental or behavioral health condition, anxiety most common and then depression

girls 2x more likely than boys to report depressive symptoms

delinquency in adolescence

increases before declining in early adulthood (marriage effect)

• risk factors:

  • difficult temperament

  • low IQ and academic failure

  • rejection & antisocial peers

  • family & neighborhood

early vs late starters

• life-course-persistent offender (early starter)- antisocial behavior begins in childhood, continues throughout life, high risk for becoming chronic offenders

• adolescent-limited offender (late starter)- antisocial begins at puberty & ends in late adolescence (age 21), conduct problems stem from peer context

antisocial behavior development

• early childhood- home as a training ground, bad family management techniques, coercive styles of parent-child interactions

• middle childhood- dual failure, academic failure & rejection by normal peers

• adolescence- involvement with deviant peers

drug use in adolescence

• usage increases from 10-25 then declines

• drug usage has decreased overall since 1976 (dramatically after covid-19), same with vaping

• heightened risk of later addiction for teens

• availability of drugs does not affect use but perception of risk does

tasks of emerging adulthood

18-25 yrs

• leaving home

• completing one’s education

• attaining economic independence

• establishing long-term romantic relationship

• starting a family

physical functioning in early adulthood

everything is at optimum level

• strength

• endurance

• sensory acuteness

• immune system responsiveness

senescence

process of genetically influenced biological aging that is universal in humans

decline is gradual (you won’t wake up and notice changes) and asynchronous (what declines first)

organ reserve

extra capacity of young adults organs to allow the body to cope with stress of physiological extremes

homeostasis

a state of equilibrium maintained by interactions of all the body’s physiological systems (in the moment adjustment)

allostasis

dynamic body adjustment that gradually affects overall physiology over time (over time adjustments)

• ex: sleep & allostatic load- stress of basic body systems that effect health (ex hypertension)

diathesis stress model

mental disorders result from the interaction of a genetic vulnerability (genetic makeup) and stressful environment

• ex NEET (not in education, employment, or training) - not doing well, more likely to suffer from mental health

monitoring the future

• alcohol use continues to decline in young adults in the us

• young adult women reported a higher prevalence in past year cannabis use than men for the first time ever in 2023, reversing the gender gap

• smoking at an all time low, but nicotine is an all time high

• psychedelics are at all time highs

upside of mental health in adults (7 lifestyle habits)

lowers risk of depression by 57%

1. get your sleep- 7-9hrs= 22% drop in depression

2. exercise (1/2 hr = better mood)

3. healthy eating

4. limit alcohol/ don’t smoke

5. limit screen time

6. cultivate friendships and social connections

postformal thought

problem solving, practical flexibility; the ability to combine subjective (personal experiences, individual perceptions) and objective (abstract, impersonal logic) thought

• thinking becomes more practical, flexible and dialectical

Labouvie-Vief’s theory

• individuals move from hypothetical to pragmatic thought in early adulthood (an advance in which logic is a tool for solving real-world problems)

• people gain cognitive-affective complexity- ability to integrate objective thoughts and subjective feelings into an organized structure

stereotype threat

the worry or belief that others will view you negatively because of your age, race, sex, etc

• can disrupt cognition and emotion regulation

stereotype threat and achievement (aronson, fried and good, 2002)

hypothesis: intellectual performance increases if you believe that intelligence is plastic (effort matters over ability)

• 79 stanford undergrads

  • group 1- control (no intervention)
    group 2- multiple intelligences

  • group 3- effort not innate ability

• read letters from struggling academic teen, the undergrads rote them letters back to encourage them then wrote a speech

• group 3 changes their views about the plastic intelligence, thus reduced the stereotype threat

• undergrads internalized the message they gave to the teen and ended up doing better in their own classes

the college experience

• 2/3 of us high school graduates enroll in colleges and universities but the drop out rate is high (1/3 graduate)

• best predictor of who goes to college is family income (SES)

• college is a developmental testing ground- exposure to new ideas and beliefs, new patterns of thinking, increased self-understanding and self-esteem

it’s worth it if you finish college!

• college grads make more than 1 million more over the lifetime than those without a college degree

• unemployment rate for 25-29 yo without a degree is 2x higher than for those with a degree

Arnette theory of emerging childhood

• 5 key features

  • identity exploration- testing thoughts & ideas to gain a clearer self-concept

  • instability-experiencing frequent changes in housing, academics, career paths, relationships

  • self-focus- focusing on individual self growth, autonomy & decision making skills

  • feeling in-between- not feeling fully adolescent or an adult

  • age of possibilities/optimism- maintaining high expectations for the future, believing multiple career and life paths remain open

• cultural boundness- emerging adulthood is not a universal stage, but a culturally constructed one. exists in industrialized or post-industrialized societies where kids aren’t required to take on adult roles after puberty

• what makes someone an adult

  • accepting full responsibility of oneself

  • making independent decisions

  • parenthood

  • becoming financially independent

erikson’s intimacy vs isolation

intimacy

• making a permanent commitment to an intimate partner

• redefine one’s identity

• balance independence and intimacy

• a secure identity comes first

isolation

• loneliness

• self-absorption

the happiness bump

emotions run high in early adulthood, most adults report their happiest memoeries during their mid 20s

rising self esteem in merging adulthood (freedom to explore, learn, make friends, fall in love, take a job, travel

gateways to attraction

• physical attractiveness- even platonic friendships

• apparent availability

• frequent exposure

• absence of exclusion criteria (no unacceptable characteristics like politics, lifestyle, judgy)

gender differences in nature of friendships

men- shared activities and practical advice; no shared vulnerability/weakness

women- intimacy and empathy; just listen, no advice. quicker to self-disclose personal info

30yo= quality > quantity

20yo= quality < quantity

sternbergs triangular theory of love

shift in emphasis over time

• intimacy- emotional component; connectedness, desire to reciprocate, communicate, concerned about partner

• passion- romance and sexual; physical and psychological arousal

• commitment- cognitive; develops slowly, what leads couples to decide they want to be together long-term

passionate love is strong at the beginning, fades while intimacy and commitment grow over time

hookup culture

sex without intimacy or commitment are more common today (64% of college students reported they’ve had a hook up)

social networks is a major innovation when looking for love (results show dating apps don’t really work though)

sex recession

emerging adults having much less sex than other cohorts, not having sex doubled from 12% to 24% in young adults from 2010 to 2024

what are some factors of a sex recession

• economic and social factors- stress, social isolation, changing relationship norms, covid

• technology- social media; online dating and pornography

• mental health and other factors- social skills and empowerment (young people more likely to say no)

attachment bonds

attachment relationships in infancy provide a secure base for exploring other relationships in adolescence and beyond

• infant attachment relationships serve as the prototype of all later love relations (prototype hypothesis)

Hazan and shaver on adult relationships

examined link between early attachment patterns and romantic relationships in adulthood using a quiz

newspaper survey of 620 participants (205 M, 415 F) ranging from 14-82yo and 108 undergrads

• 56% secure

• 24% avoidant

• 20% anxious-ambivalent

attachment styles in adulthood associated with current state of mind regarding early relationships with parents

types of attachment relationships

1. secure- comfortable with intimacy, unafraid of abandonment; relationship= trust, happiness & friendship (comfort in close relationships, accept partners flaws)

2. avoidant- independence, mistrust, anxiety about closeness; jealousy, emotional distance, little physical pleasure (don’t need love to be content)

3. resistant/ambivalent- seek quick love, complete merging; jealousy, desperation, emotional highs & lows (fearful partner doesn’t love you back)

these can change with age- people become more secure as time goes on

avoidant attachment in adulthood

• difficulty providing/receiving support

• poorer relationship quality, discomfort with physical, emotional intimacy

• limited attention/memory for emotional information

• dampened physiological response to intimate reactions

anxious attachment in adulthood

• excessive concern about rejection & abandonment

• more relationship conflict an drama, more distress after break up

• vigilant to atachment-related threats

• more physiologically reactive, more physical health problems

cohabitation

couples living together in a committed romantic relationship but not married

since 1960 it has increased dramatically

does not prevent divorce

• lower odds of divorce in the first year, but not all other years (rosenfeld & roesler)

three theories of causality (cohabitation and divorce odds)

• selection- difference between people who live together and don’t live together; having a kid before marriage, divorce of parents

• experience of cohabiting changes things- living together longer=less positive attitude on marriage, more on divorce

• inertia- moving in together makes it harder to break up than anything else; harder to exit with cohabitation

advantages and disadvantages of cohabitation

• advantage- economic

• disadvantage- cohabitated= less money, worse parenting, kids do worse in school, less stable household