AP Psychology: Sensation and Perception

Practice flashcards defining key terminology, biological structures, and theories from the AP Psychology Sensation and Perception lecture guide.

Sensation

Receiving sensory input from the environment.

Sensory receptors

Specialized cells that respond to stimuli.

Perception

The process by which the brain organizes and interprets sensory information.

Bottom-up processing

Processing that begins with sensory input and builds toward interpretation by combining individual features into a whole.

Top-down processing

Perception guided by experience, expectations, and higher-level mental processes.

Transduction

Converting physical stimulus energy into neural impulses the brain can use.

Psychophysics

The study of the relationship between physical stimuli and psychological experiences.

Sensory adaptation

Becoming less sensitive to a constant, unchanging stimulus.

Prosopagnosia

Difficulty recognizing faces, including familiar ones, associated with a lack of proper functioning in the right hemisphere.

Absolute threshold

The weakest stimulus detected 50% of the time.

Signal detection theory

Theory explaining how weak signals are detected amid noise, influenced by experience and other factors.

Subliminal stimulation

Stimulation that occurs below conscious awareness.

Priming

The process by which prior exposure activates associations that influence later responses.

Difference threshold (JND)

The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.

Weber's law

Principle stating that detecting a difference depends on a constant proportion of the original stimulus rather than a constant amount.

Wavelength (light)

The distance between successive wave peaks, which determines the color experienced.

Amplitude (light)

The height of a light wave, which influences intensity and brightness.

Cornea

Eye structure that protects the eye and bends incoming light.

Pupil

The adjustable opening that allows light to enter the eye.

Iris

Muscle tissue that controls pupil size.

Lens

Structure that changes shape to focus light on the retina through accommodation.

Accommodation

The adjustment where the eye's lens changes shape to focus light on the retina.

Retina

The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye containing visual receptor cells: rods and cones.

Fovea

The central retinal area containing many cones that provides sharp, detailed vision.

Blind spot

The point where the optic nerve leaves the eye, containing no receptor cells.

Optic nerve

Nerve that carries visual information toward the brain.

Optic chiasm

The area where some visual pathways cross to the opposite side of the brain.

Thalamus (visual system)

Brain structure that relays visual information toward the visual cortex.

Rods

Visual receptor cells (about 120 million) concentrated in the retinal periphery that detect black, white, and gray, function well in dim light, and provide less detailed vision.

Cones

Visual receptor cells (about 6 million) concentrated toward the center/fovea that detect color and fine detail, functioning better in bright light.

Trichromatic theory (Young–Helmholtz)

Theory stating that three cone types respond to different wavelength ranges (associated with red, green, and blue), and combinations of cone activity create color experiences.

Opponent-process theory (Hering)

Theory stating that color is processed in opposing pairs (red–green, blue–yellow, black–white), which helps explain afterimages.

Feature detectors

Specialized neurons in the occipital lobe, studied by Hubel and Wiesel, that respond to specific features such as edges, lines, angles, and movement.

Fusiform face area (FFA)

Brain area associated with the right temporal lobe that helps perceive and recognize faces.

Parallel processing

The brain's ability to process different visual features simultaneously, including color, motion, and form.

Amplitude (sound)

The height of a sound wave, which determines loudness.

Frequency (sound)

The number of cycles per second measured in hertz (Hz), which determines pitch.

Outer ear

Ear structure that collects sound waves.

Eardrum

Membrane that vibrates in response to sound waves.

Middle ear

Ear chamber containing the ossicles, which transmit and amplify vibrations.

Ossicles

The three small middle-ear bones (malleus, incus, and stapes; also called hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that transmit and amplify sound vibrations.

Cochlea

Inner-ear structure containing the basilar membrane and hair cells that respond to vibrations.

Auditory nerve

Nerve that carries neural signals from the cochlea toward the brain.

Sensorineural hearing loss

Hearing loss caused by damage to sensory hair cells or auditory nerve pathways.

Conduction hearing loss

Hearing loss caused by mechanical transmission problems in the outer or middle ear.

Cochlear implant

Device that converts sound into electrical signals to stimulate the auditory nerve pathway.

Tinnitus

The perception of ringing or other sounds without a corresponding external sound source.

Place theory

Theory stating that different sound frequencies produce maximum vibrations at different locations along the basilar membrane, useful for explaining high-frequency pitch perception.

Frequency theory

Theory stating that pitch is represented by the frequency/rate of neural impulses traveling along the auditory nerve, useful for explaining low-frequency pitch perception.

Nociceptors

Receptors that detect potentially damaging stimuli, including extreme temperature, pressure, and chemicals.

Gate-control theory

A proposed mechanism in which a neurological 'gate' influences the transmission of pain signals to the brain.

Endorphins

The body's natural pain-relieving chemicals.

Phantom limb sensation

Feeling sensations that seem to come from a limb that is no longer present.

Gustation

The chemical sense of taste, involving receptor cells in taste buds that detect five basic sensations: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami.

Olfaction

The chemical sense of smell, where odor molecules stimulate receptors in the nasal cavity via pathways that initially bypass the thalamus.

Anosmia

The loss of the ability to smell.

Proprioceptors

Sensory receptors located in muscles, tendons, and joints that detect body position.

Kinesthesis

The sense of position and movement of individual body parts.

Vestibular sense

Sense that monitors head position, movement, and overall balance.

Semicircular canals and vestibular sacs

Inner-ear structures involved in balance and equilibrium by detecting changes in head movement.

Sensory interaction

The principle that one sense may influence another, as when smell, taste, and texture combine to create flavor.

McGurk effect

A perceptual phenomenon where visual information about mouth movements changes what speech sound is perceived.

Embodied cognition

The influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences, judgments, and perceptions.

Synesthesia

A phenomenon where stimulation of one sensory pathway involuntarily produces an experience associated with another sense.