PSY 200 - Chapters 4-8 Study Set (Openstax 2e)

inattentional blindness

failure to detect stimuli that are in plain sight when our attention is focused elsewhere

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

Gestalt Principles

ways for the brain to infer missing parts of a picture when a picture is incomplete

figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).

Perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

Sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

sensory adaptation

tendency of sensory receptor cells to become less responsive to a stimulus that is unchanging

proximity principle

Gestalt principle of perception that states that parts of a visual stimulus that are close together are perceived as belonging together

closure principle

the Gestalt principle that describes a person's tendency to supply missing information in order to perceive a holistic image

Good Continuation (Gestalt)

A Gestalt grouping rule stating that two elements will tend to group together if they seem to lie on the same contour.

Motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

The organism learns to associate two stimuli

One produces a response that originally was only produced by the other

Classic example of dog/bell and salivation

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

Behaviorism (John Watson)

the science of behavior that focuses on observable behavior only

Observational Learning (Bandura)

learning new behavior by watching a model perform that behavior

fixed-interval schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

variable-interval schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

variable-ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

conditioned response (CR)

a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

unconditioned response (UR)

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

conditioned stimulus (CS)

a stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place

unconditioned stimulus (US)

something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism

sensory awareness

the ability to use sight, sound, touch, smell, and taste to become conscious of the environment

sleep debt

result of insufficient sleep on a chronic basis

The sleep debt is the result of ________.

insufficient sleep on a chronic basis

Sleep Debt Consequences

Weight gain

Depression

Increased risk for cardiovascular problems

Decreased immune system

Sleep regulation is controlled by...

CNS (Thalamus, Hypothalamus, and pons)

What percentage of our lives are spent sleeping?

33% (1/3)

REM rebound effect

when deprived of REM, participants go back into REM sleep more quickly and they spend a greater percentage of time in REM sleep

SIDS

sudden and unexpected death of an apparently healthy infant during sleep

circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle

Light-dark exposure

________ is one way in which people can help reset their biological clocks.

Melatonin

A hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness.

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times. Treated with amphetamine-like medication.

sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

meditation is helpful in

stress management

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

concept

A general idea or thought about something

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category

Schemata

Mental models of the world that we use to guide and interpret our experiences

anchoring bias (anchoring heuristic)

mental shortcut that involves adding new information to existing information to reach a judgment

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions

representative bias

Unintentional stereotyping of someone or something

functional fixedness (fixation)

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving

hindsight bias

I knew it all along phenomenon

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

artificial concepts

Concepts defined by rules, such as word definitions and mathematical formulas.

cognitive script

set of behaviors that are performed the same way each time; also referred to as an event schema

role schema

a schema about how people in certain roles are expected to behave

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

amnesia

partial or total loss of memory

false memory syndrome

the creation of inaccurate or false memories through the suggestion of others, often while the person is under hypnosis

flashbulb memory

A clear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful and emotional event.

acoustic encoding

input of sounds, words, and music

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

arousal theory

strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories

explicit memory

the act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences

implicit memory

Memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously

Three basic functions of memory

encoding, storage, retrieval

mnemonic devices

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

egocentric bias

Recalling the past in a self-serving manner, e.g., remembering one's exam grades as being better than they were, or remembering a caught fish as bigger than it really was.

construction

The formation of new memories is sometimes called ____________________

procedural memory

A type of long-term memory of how to perform different actions and skills. Essentially, it is the memory of how to do certain things.

rehearsal

conscious repetition of information

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

Elaborative Memorization

Giving meaning to information being memorized in order to memorize it more effectively.