Psych of Women Exam 2

Essential Differences Perspective

• gender differences are influenced by biological factors

• emphasizes genetics, hormones, and brain structure

• differences are often viewed as relatively stable

Social Constructionist Perspective

• gender differences are shaped by culture, socialization, and social expectations

• emphasizes gender roles, social interactions, media, and power

• differences can change depending on social context

Aggression

behavior intended to harm another person physically or verbally

Physical Aggression

• intentionally causing physical harm

• more common among boys and men

• ex: hitting, fighting, physical violence

Relational Aggression

• intentionally damaging another person’s relationships or social standing

• often more common among girls, particularly during childhood

• ex: gossip, exclusion, spreading rumors, cyberbullying

• common around ages 10-12

Prosocial Behavior

refers to voluntary behavior intended to benefit someone else

Affiliative Interruption

• shows interest, agreement, or support

• more common among women

• ex: “Yes! That’s exactly what I was thinking!”

Intrusive Interruption

• attempts to take control of the conversation

• more common among men

• ex: interrupting someone to redirect the discussion toward your own point

Female-Associated Speech

• communal and supportive

• polite and indirect

• more tentative

• emotionally expressive

• uses uncertainty statements

Male-Associated Speech

• direct

• goal-oriented

• more abrupt

• assertive

• associated with power and confidence

Amplification

strategy in which someone repeats and explicitly credits another person’s idea to ensure that person receives recognition

“Bossy” Stereotype

assertive girls and women may be labeled “bossy,” potentially discouraging leadership behaviors

Classroom Performance

• girls generally earn higher grades in mathematics and science

• girls take many mathematics and science courses at high rates

• performance reflects sustained academic work

Standardized Test Performance

• boys historically scored higher on SAT mathematics in the data presented

• gender gaps vary across countries

• performance can be influenced by anxiety, stereotypes, and demographic factors

Visual-Spatial Ability

involves mentally manipulating, rotating, or interpreting objects and spatial information

Spatial Visualization

identifying patterns and interpreting spatial information

• small gender differences

Spatial Perception

understanding spatial orientation relative to the environment

• moderate gender differences d = 0.4

Mental Rotation

mentally rotating objects or shapes

• larger gender differences d = 0.5 - 0.9

Agentic Gender Expectations

• traditionally masculine

• goal-directed and assertive

• expected to pursue romantic or sexual partners

• sexual pursuit is often socially accepted

• may be portrayed as unable to control sexual desires

Communal Gender Expectations

• traditionally feminine

• emotionally expressive and nurturing

• expected to emphasize emotional intimacy

• expected to restrain sexual expression

• may be held responsible for controlling men’s sexual behavior

Marriage Scripts

culturally established expectations about how people should behave within marriage

Sexual Autonomy

having the right to make independent decisions about sexual activity, including the right to consent or refuse, regardless of marital status

40-50%

What percentage of American marriages end in divorce?

Reproductive Autonomy

the ability to make informed decisions about contraception, pregnancy, and reproduction

Sexual Scripts

culturally learned expectations about how people should behave in sexual or romantic situations

Frigidity

women who could not experience vaginal orgasms were sexually dysfunctional or had failed to adjust to their feminine role

Hysteria

historically, this was sometimes associated with the belief that the uterus could move around the body, causing psychological disturbances

Alfred Kinsey

• conducted sexuality research during the 1940s and 1950s

• interviewed thousands of people, including approximately 6,000 women

• published Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948) and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953)

• emphasized variation in human sexual behavior and orientation

• challenged the idea that sexuality fits exclusively into heterosexual and homosexual categories

Kinsey Scale

describes sexual orientation along a continuum

Masters & Johnson

studied the physiological processes involved in sexual activity

• observed participants engaging in sexual activities

• measured muscular and vascular responses

• focused on the biological aspects of sexual arousal

• published Human Sexual Response (1966)

• work contributed to understanding the sexual response cycle

Shere Hite

focused on women’s subjective experiences of sexuality; research suggested that

• women were more likely to experience orgasms through masturbation or direct clitoral stimulation than through penile thrusting alone

• approximately 70% of women in the research discussed did not experience orgasm through penetration alone

• the assumption that intercourse should reliably produce female orgasms was misguided

challenged male-centered definitions of successful sexual activity

Vulva

collective term for the external female genital structures

Structures in the Vulva

• mons pubis

• labia majora

• labia minora

• clitoris

• urethra

• vagina

Clitoris

• only known function is sexual pleasure and arousal

• contains many nerve endings

• internal structure is much larger than externally visible portion

Sexual Response Cycle

excitement → plateau → orgasm → resolution

Sexual Double Standard

tendency to judge men and women differently for engaging in similar sexual behaviors

Sexual Plasticity

refers to the extent to which sexual attitudes, behaviors, or experiences can change in response to social and situational influences

Inhibited Sexual Desire

reduced interest in sexual activity (25% of women)

Female Orgasmic Disorder

difficulty experiencing orgasm (almost 25% of women)

Sexual Arousal Disorder

difficulty becoming or remaining sexually aroused (14% of women)

Dyspareunia

painful sexual intercourse (7% of women)

Spectatoring

a form of cognitive interference in which someone mentally observes or evaluates their own sexual performance rather than focusing on the experience

Organ Recital Sex Education

focuses primarily on reproductive anatomy and biology; too narrow to address the broader aspects of sexuality

Abstinence-Only Sex Education

emphasizes avoiding sexual activity; not effective at reducing sexual activity or STDs

Comprehensive Sex Education

covers biology, emotions, attitudes, contraception, and informed decisions; more effective than abstinence-only education

Follicular Phase

follicles develop in the ovaries in preparation for ovulation

Ovulatory Phase

an egg is released from the ovary

Luteal Phase

the body prepares for a possible pregnancy

Menstruation

the uterine lining is shed if pregnancy does not occur

Prostaglandins

this is associated with menstrual cramps; substances released by the uterine lining that contribute to uterine contractions

Menstrual Distress

emphasizes the negative physical and psychological experiences associated with menstruation

Menstrual Joy

emphasizes positive experiences and meanings associated with menstruation

Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)

refers to physical and psychological symptoms associated with the period before menstruation

Katharina Dalton

• conducted early research on PMS, including research involving women prisoners

• associated with recognizing premenstrual symptoms as a meaningful phenomenon

• emphasized premenstrual changes

Joan Chrisler

• questioned the way PMS is conceptualized

• argued that PMS can function as a culture-bound syndrome

• emphasized cultural expectations and beliefs about menstruation

Culture-Bound Syndrome

a pattern of symptoms or experiences that is strongly shaped by cultural beliefs and expectations

Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD)

presented as a more severe form of premenstrual symptomatology, affects about 3-9% of women; diagnostic criteria:

• at least 5 symptoms

• at least 1 mood-related symptom, such as depression, anxiety, mood swings, or anger

• symptoms must significantly interfere with work or social relationships

• symptoms must occur during the premenstrual phase

40-50%

What percentage of pregnancies are unplanned?

85%

What percentage of women become pregnant within one year without contraception?

Female Literacy

strongest indicator of contraceptive use

1973

What year was Roe v. Wade?

Roe v. Wade

the U.S. Supreme Court recognized constitutional protection for abortion under the right to privacy

2022

What year was the Dobbs decision?

Dobbs Decision

the Supreme Court overturned Roe v. Wade, ending federal constitutional protection for abortion under that precedent

Post-Abortion Syndrome

a proposed condition suggesting that abortion causes depression or other psychological problems

Medicalization

refers to treating childbirth primarily as a medical event requiring professional supervision and medical interventions

• emphasizes medical supervision

• commonly occurs in hospitals

• may include interventions such as induction or cesarean delivery

• medical professionals direct clinical decisions

Family-Centered Childbirth

• emphasizes the woman’s preferences and involvement

• may involve hospitals, birthing centers, or homes

• emphasizes education, relaxation, and support

• encourages shared decision-making

Lamaze Method

uses education, breathing, and relaxation strategies during childbirth

Doula

a trained support person who provides emotional, physical, and informational assistance during childbirth

Nurse-Midwife

a healthcare professional trained in pregnancy and childbirth care

Home Birth

childbirth occurring at home rather than in a hospital

Motherhood Mystique

refers to the idealized belief that motherhood is a woman’s ultimate source of fulfillment

Integrated Motherhood

when women combine employment and parenting with support from extended family members

Postpartum Blues

temporary emotional changes following childbirth, mild severity, occurs in up to 75% of women, symptoms occur during the first 6 weeks after childbirth

Postpartum Depression

more persistent depressive symptoms and emotional distress, moderate to severe severity, more severe than postpartum blues, affects 10-15% of women, involves significant depressive symptoms

Postpartum Psychosis

rare psychiatric condition involving severe disturbances in thinking or perception, very severe, may involve delusions, hallucinations, or loss of contact with reality