Human Development Across the Life Span

Flashcards reviewing key concepts in human development, including theory of mind, scaffolding, gender socialization, parenting styles, puberty, moral reasoning, psychosocial stages, and cognitive changes in aging.

What is the Dot Test used to assess in infants, and at what age do Western, urban middle-class children typically pass it?

The Dot Test assesses an infant's self-awareness by placing a dot of paint on the child's nose and placing them in front of a mirror. Middle-class children in Western, urban environments typically pass this test around $18$ months of age.

How did $18$‑month‑old toddlers demonstrate early theory of mind in the broccoli versus Goldfish crackers study?

Toddlers gave an adult broccoli when it was clear the adult preferred broccoli, even though the toddlers themselves overwhelmingly preferred Goldfish crackers.

What are cohort effects in developmental research?

Cohort effects are experiences unique to a specific age group or generation that make it difficult for them to relate to other generations at that same stage, such as growing up before or after fundamental technological changes.

According to Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural view, what is scaffolding?

Scaffolding is guidance provided by knowledgeable mentor adults that helps children progress to higher levels of thinking, aimed within the range between what a child can achieve alone and what they can accomplish with considerable help.

What is mental-state language and how does its parental use benefit young children?

Mental-state language refers to words that describe mental states, such as thoughts and feelings. Parental use of mental-state language increases the likelihood that children will pass false belief tests later and improves their autobiographical memory.

What is a gender schema and how does gender understanding change from age $3$ through elementary school age?

A gender schema is a network of assumptions about how people of different genders are supposed to act, think, and feel. Children develop rigid stereotypes around ages $3$ to $5$, view activities as strictly binary by ages $5$ and $6$, and develop gender constancy as they approach elementary school age.

What are the four primary parenting styles defined by levels of responsiveness and demandingness?

1. Authoritarian: low responsiveness, high demandingness. 2. Passive: high responsiveness, low demandingness. 3. Authoritative: high responsiveness, high demandingness. 4. Disengaged: low responsiveness, low demandingness.

How does the impact of authoritarian parenting differ for Black girls compared to European American girls in the United States?

In the United States, authoritarian parenting in Black girls is associated with greater independence and self-confidence than in European American girls.

What are the average onset ages and critical physiological milestones of puberty for females and males?

Puberty begins on average at age $11$ for females, with the critical milestone of menarche occurring around age $12.5$. For males, puberty begins on average at age $13$, with spermarche occurring usually by age $14$.

Why do adolescents exhibit greater risk-seeking behavior and poorer self-control during puberty?

The limbic system develops more rapidly than the prefrontal cortex, leading to amplified reward sensitivity where the perception of rewards wins out over risks.

What are Lawrence Kohlberg's three sequential levels of moral reasoning?

1. Preconventional stage: moral reasoning focuses on self-interest and obeying rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards. 2. Conventional stage: moral reasoning focuses on caring for others and upholding social roles/laws. 3. Postconventional stage: moral reasoning stems from broad ethical principles and human rights.

What critique did Carol Gilligan offer regarding Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning?

Gilligan argued that Kohlberg's scale better reflects men's moral values than women's, as women tend to view morality in terms of compassion, preserving relationships, and special responsibilities to loved ones.

What are the eight stages of psychosocial development proposed by Erik Erikson?

1. Infancy ($0$--$1.5$ years): Trust vs. mistrust. 2. Early Childhood ($1.5$--$3$ years): Autonomy vs. shame and doubt. 3. Preschool ($3$--$6$ years): Initiative vs. guilt. 4. School Age ($6$ years--puberty): Competence vs. inferiority. 5. Adolescence: Identity vs. role confusion. 6. Early Adulthood: Intimacy vs. isolation. 7. Middle Age: Generativity vs. stagnation. 8. Later Years: Integrity vs. despair.

What is emerging adulthood and what age range does it encompass?

Emerging adulthood is a distinct developmental phase between adolescence and adulthood, roughly encompassing ages $18$ to $25$, characterized by identity exploration, schooling, and transitioning toward financial and career independence.

How did Canadian fertility rates change between $2009$ and $2021$?

The average number of children per woman in Canada declined from $1.69$ in $2009$ to $1.43$ in $2021$.

How do fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence change during late adulthood?

Fluid intelligence (working memory, attention, processing speed) experiences gradual decline due to frontal lobe grey matter loss, whereas crystallized intelligence (accumulated knowledge) tends to increase with age.

How do higher-performing older adults neural-adapt during cognitive tasks to maintain intellectual function?

They recruit greater frontal lobe activity and display bilateral activation, using both sides of the brain more symmetrically during cognitive tasks.

What early life physical factor serves as the best predictor of cognitive abilities in senior citizens?

Physical activity during teenage years is the best predictor of cognitive abilities in senior citizens.