Psychology Exam 2

bottom-up. detects physical energy from the environment and turns it into neural signals

Sensation

top-down. when we select, organize, and interpret our sensations

Perception

bottom-up processing begins with…

sense receptors and works up to the level of the brain and the mind

top down processing is guided by…

higher mental processes as we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectation.

how is the amplitude property of light percieved?

intensity/ brightness

how is the wavelength property of light percieved?

hue/ color (short wavelength 400nm = purple) (long wavelength 700nm = red)

what is the pupil?

it is the adjustable opening where light eneters the eye

what is the iris?

the colored muscle surrounding the pupil

what does the iris control?

the aperture (how big or small the pupil gets in the light vs. dark)

what does the lens of the eye do?

it focuses light onto the retina and small muscles change its shape to focus the light (accomodation)

what is the retina and where is it located?

a layer of photo-sensitive cells in the back surface of the eyeball

what does the retina do?

it transduces photons into chemical changes that result in neural impulses

what is the retina composed of?

cones and cells

what is the fovea?

the central area of the retina that contains only cones

through the retina…

light reaches the rods and cones, chemical reactions activate the bipolar cell layer, bipolar cells activate the ganglion cell layer, axons of ganglion cells bunch up to form the optic nerve (blind spot)

medium activity…

light on center and surround

higher activity…

light on center, dark on surround

low activity…

dark on center and surround

what is the specific region of visual space where light changes the firing rate of a retinal?

the ganglion receptive field

what does the optic nerve do?

carries the signals from eye to brain

what is the blind spot?

point where the optic nerve leaves the eye

what is the fovea?

central point in the retina around which the cones cluster

what are the 2 types of receptors?

cones and rods

what are rod receptors responsible for? and how many are there?

peripheral vision and vision in the dark, around 120 million

what are the cone receptors responsible for? and how many are there?

they are responsible for the detection of detail and color, around 6 million

when are the cone receptors able to function?

in bright light conditions

what is feature detection?

nerve cells in the visual cortex respond to specific features: edges, angles, and movement

in parallel processing, the brain divides an image into what subdivisions?

color, depth, motion, and form

what is the tri-chromatic theory of vision?

that all colors we see are made out of pure versions of green, red, and blue light

Which genetic disorder supports the tri-chromatic theory of vision?

color blindness

what quirk of color vision can the tri-chromatic theory not explain?

afterimages

what is the Opponent Process Theory of Color Vision?

colors are grouped into three pairs and the members of each pair oppose or inhibit each other.

what are the pairs in the Opponent Process Theory of Color Vsion?

blue and yellow, red and green, black and white

what are the names of the two stages that color processing takes place in?

photoreceptor layer and ganglion cells

which theory of color does the photoreceptor layer support?

Tri-Chromatic Theory of Color Vision

which theory of color vision does the ganglion cells support?

Opponent Processing Theory of Color Vision

What are chromosomes composed of?

deoxyribonucleic acid

what does tempermant refer to?

a person’s emotional reactivity and intensity

what is the only function of genes?

to direct our physical development by synthesizing proteins

what is epigenetics?

the study of influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

how do identical twins originate?

the fertilization of a single egg by a single sperm cell

what is collectivism?

cultures that prioritize the good of the group over the good of the individual

what is assimilation?

trying to fit NEW experiences and ideas into existing schemas

what is accommodation?

changing current schemas to make sense of new experiences

what is a zygote?

a fertilized egg composed of around 100 cells

what does a zygote turn into after around 2 weeks?

an embryo

what does an embryo turn into after around 9 weeks?

a fetus

what are teratogens?

chemicals or viruses that can enter the placenta and harm the developing fetus (alcohol, drugs)

what are schemas?

a way to organize a lot of ideas- “a concept” or category.

which 4 stages are in Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development?

sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, formal operational

what happens in the sensorimotor Piaget stage?

mental activities are confined to schema about sensory functions and motor skills

what Piaget stage is object permanace developed in?

sensorimotor. when object permanace is fully developed it marks the end of the sensorimotor stage.

what happens in the pre-operational stage?

children begin to understand, create, and use symbols to represent things that are not present (example: a picture of mom represents mom)

which Piaget stage is highly egocentric (in the way that they believe how things look to them is how they look to everyone else)

Pre-operational

True or false, in the pre-operational stage, children do not yet understand conservation (water glass example)

True

What is the Theory of Mind?

the ability to understand another person’s mental state

what is a key feature of the Concrete Operational stage?

starting to use logical rules to guide thinking, still cannot think about abstract/ hypothetical ideas

what is a key feature of the Formal Operational stage?

ability to engage in hypothetical, abstract thinking

what is adolescent egocentrism?

the idea that “everyone is looking at me”

what is personal fable in the formal operational Piaget stage?

the thought that their “experiences are unique” and “no one can understand what I’m feeling”

Abstract thinking allows for more advanced _____ _______

moral reasoning

what is secure infant attatchment?

the urge to be close to the mother balanced by the urge to explore

what period of time is adolescence defined by?

the time between puberty and adulthood

in western cultures, is adolescence getting longer or shorter?

longer due to expensive housing (not being able to afford to live on their own)

the frontal cortex ____ _____ the limbic (hormones) system’s development

lags behind

Who created the stages of moral development?

Kholberg

What are Kohlberg’s stages of moral development?

pre conventional, conventional, and post conventional

what is the pre conventional stage of moral development?

moral choices tend to be selfish in nature (obey rules to avoid punishment and get reward)

what is the conventional stage of moral development?

choices based on following rules/ conventions to gain approval from others and keep social order

what is the post conventional stage of moral development?

judgements based on personal beliefs and morals and also universal standards.

Who’s idea was gut first, reasons later (morality runs on moral intuitiuons)?

Jonathan Hadit

What happens to memory as we age?

recognition lasts, recall fades. (recognition is like multiple choice, recall is like essay test)

what two things are heavily influenced by our genes?

temperament and personality

How do genes affect behavior?

genes don’t DIRECTLY affect behavior, they just code for proteins.

what two things interact to determine personality?

genes and environment

How do genes and environment interact to determine personality?

genes influence behavior, which affects environment, which affects genes

what is epigenetics?

the study of how environments affect gene expression

what is evolutionary psychology?

the study of the evolution of behavior and mind using principles of natural selection

what is the term “sweet tooth”

a preference shaped by evolutionary history

what are the criticisms of evolutionary pasychology?

it focuses too much on genes, it relies on hindsight explanation, and it has too little emphasis on social influences

is peer influence or parental influence stronger?

peer influence is stronger

what is the westernized culture?

you are responsible for yourself, be independent, speak your truth type beat

what is the culture like in Asia and Africa?

you belong to a group, do what is best for the group, obedience is very important

What are the gender differences in behavior genetics?

they are much smaller than you think. However, women tend to build more community, while men tend to be more independent

what are gender roles?

our culture shapes them, expectations of how men and women are supposed to behave

what is gender identity?

how a person views themselves in terms of gender

What are some characteristics of dreams?

intense emotion, illogical thought, uncritical acceptance, difficulty remembering

what are some reasons why we might dream?

information processing, physiological function (preservation of neural pathways), and activation-synthesis (making sense of neural “noise”)

What was Freud’s idea for why we dream?

wish fulfillment- that humans want to do bad things, but it is social unacceptable, so they do them where there are no consequences

What is hypnosis?

a social interaction in which the hypnotist suggests that certain perceptions, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

What two things explain the hypnotized state?

Social Influence Theory (subjects are simply good actors) and Divided Consciousness Theory

What is a psychoactive drug?

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood by getting into your central nervous system (affects consciousness)

What are the three groups of psychoactive drugs?

Depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens

What are examples of depressants?

alcohol, opiums (morphine and heroine), and barbiturates (tranquilizers)

what are examples of stimulants?

caffeine, meth, amphetamines, nicotine, ecstasy

what are examples of hallucinogens?

LSD and marijuana

What does caffeine and nicotine do?

increases heart and breathing rates to provide energy

what do opiates do?

agonist for endorphin; lessens pain and are extremely addictive

how does cocaine work?

it suppresses the re-uptake or serotonin, dopamine, and endorphins