PSYCHOLOGY REVISION 1 (SOCIAL INFLUENCE)

Obedience

A form of social influence where an individual responds to and follows a direct order, typically from authority

I.e a student putting their phone away at the request of the teacher

Factors of Obedience

(1) Proximity of Authority

(2) Prestige of Authority

(3) Deinviduation

(4) Peer Support

Proximity to Authority

An authority figure making an order from a distance, such as through the phone, makes them easier to resist, whereas if they're in direct proximity, the likelihood of following the order increases

Prestige of Authority

The more prestige an authority figure appears to have, the more likely they are to be followed through prior correlation

i.e a police officer in uniform being associated with law

Deinviduation

When in an individual joins/finds themselves in a larger group, they typically losing their ability to make individual decisions, naturally assimilating with the majorities behavioural patterns and actions

Peer Support’s Influence on Obedience

When an individual finds like minded peers that support or act out with them they are much more likely to be disobedient, and vice versa.

The Milgram Experiment’s Proceedings

> 40 random males between the ages of 20-40, hired via advertisement

> Participants ensured to be given the role of punisher/teacher, told to adminstered increasing 'shocks' to the learners (actors) with every wrong answer given, testing obedience capacity in face of supposed suffering

Ethical Issues of The Milgram Experiment

(1) Mental harm and stress induced on participant through witnessing increasingly alarming false torture

(2) Right to withdraw from experiment and procedure was removed entirely

(3) Deception, clear transparency on process was not given

The Stanford Prison Experiment

> 24 emotionally stable male students, hired via advertisement

> Participants split into the role of prisoner and prison guard, and accordingly abducted from their houses

> Participants who were prisoners underwent the same treatment as a prisoner and vice versa

Ethical Issues of The Stanford Prison Experiment

(1) Mental/physical harm and stress induced on prisoner participants in particular within the experiment

(2) Right to withdraw from experiment and procedure was removed entirely

(3) Deception, clear transparency on process was not given

Conformity

A form of social influence where an individual yields to the expectations and pressures of a group

I.e buying jeans because they're trendy again

Types of Conformity

(1) Compliance

(2) Internalisation

(3) identification

Compliance Conformity

Publicly changing your behaviour and opinion to better fit with the majority, but privately not changing your mind at all

I.e laughing at a bigoted joke in a social setting but not actually finding it funny

Internalisation Conformity

Publicly changing your behaviour and opinion to better fit with the majority due to encouragement to change your private beliefs

I.e becoming vegatarian with your friend group and maintaining the practice publicly and privately

Identification Conformity

Publicly and privately changing your behaviour and opinion to better fit with the majority, but only in the presence of a group

I.e thinking its ok to smoke when in the presence of friends but not otherwise

Factors of Conformity

(1) Normative Social Influence

(2) Informational Social Influence

(3) individual Characteristics

Normative Social Influence

Conforming influenced through the need for an individual to feel socially accepted and or belong in a majority group, logically preventing social ridicule as result

Informational Social Influence

Conforming to the external belief/behaviour of someone who you believe to be more informationally equipped, due to either ego and the unsureness of self.

Characteristic Influence on Conformity

Conformity can be influenced through established factors such as newness to group, self monitoring, concern with righteousness, leadership skills, culture, gender, prejudice

Situational Factors that Influence Conformity

Task Anonymity, Task Difficulty, Task Importance, Task Ambiguity, Group Unanimity, Group Size, Status of Majority Group, Group Cohesiveness

Attitude

A set of emotions, beliefs, and behaviours towards a particular object, person, issue, or event.

Components of Attitude

(1) Affective (Emotions)

(2) Behavioural

(3) Cognitive (Beliefs)

Attitude Formation

The initial formation of a positive or negative attitude towards something

Attitude Change

The process of changing an originally positive attitude to a negative attitude, or vice versa.

Factors of Attitude Formation and Change

(1) Source, Message and Audience (Yale Attitude Change Approach)

(2) Peripheral and Central Processing (Elaboration Likelihood Model)

(3) Direct and Indirect Experience

Source

The more favourable and trustworthy the consumer see's the source = the more likely we are to be persuaded

i.e attractiveness, social ranking, expertise on the content

Message

The stronger and more consistently our emotions are evoked = the more likely we are to be persuaded

i.e usage of statistics, stories or music, positive and negative emotional reinforcement

Audience

Audience members with low self esteem/from younger generations = easier to persuade

Audience members who know a lot about the topic/older generations = harder to persuade

Central Processing Route

(1) Requires critical and analytical based thinking from the audience in order for intended message to be fully grasped

(2) Content that focuses on appeasing this route is driven by logic and data

(3) Attitude change is more permanent

Peripheral Processing Route

(1) Utilises processing cues such as surface beauty and pleasure.

(2) Content that focuses on appeasing this route utilises positive social endorsement and associations

(3) Attitude change is impermanent

Indirect Experience

An advertisement may cause an individual to develop a positive attitude towards dairy farms, despite an individual never being to the farm themselves

Direct Experience

An individual may choose to visit a dairy farm and change their previous attitude through direct experience.

Strategies/Tactics that Influence Consumer Persuasion

(1) Norm of Reciprocity

(2) Door-in-the-face

(3) Foot-in-the-door

Norm of Reciprocity

Based on the social norm that people will return a favour when one is granted to them.

i.e handing out free company samples to people passing by

Door-in-the-face

Begins with an initially large request (that is expect to be denied). After being denied, followed with a small request which is more likely to be agreed to.

i.e a salesperson offering something at 100 and then marking it down to 50 upon refusal

Foot-in-the-door

Begins with an initially small request, and is later followed with a larger request.

i.e the initial request being accepted makes and individual more likely to also achieve a follow up, larger request.

Bidirectional Relationship Concept

The relationship between attitudes and behaviour is bidirectional. Attitude influences Behaviour, and Behaviour influences Attitude

Factors that Influence of the Bidirectional Relationship between Attitude and Behaviour

(1) Attitude Strength

(2) Attitude Accessibility

(3) Attitude Specificity

Attitude Strength

A strong attitude will have a substantial influence on behaviour. A weak attitude will have a smaller influence on behaviour.

Attitude Accessibility

An attitude that comes to mind frequently and has a substantial influence on behaviour.

Attitude Specificity

The more specific that an attitude is, the larger the influence will be on behaviour.

Link between 'Behaviour' and 'Attitude'

Engaging in behaviour with an uncertain attitude causes the eventual development of positive or negative attitudes

Situational Pressure

Behavioural change may be a result of externalised pressure from peers

High Self Monitoring

More likely to change behaviour off the influence of social cues and information

Consequences of Inconsistency surrounding 'Attitude' and 'Behaviour'

(1) Mental Distress

(2) Inability to Predict Behaviour

(3) Social Desirability Bias

Mental Distress Consequence

If an Individuals behaviour is doesn't align with attitude, they are more likely to experience stress.

i.e Negative attitude towards your job, but being forced to keep it due to necessity, causing long term distress

Inability to Predict Behaviour Consequence

If an Individuals behaviour and attitude is inconsistent, others will have difficulty predicting how they act

Social Desirability Bias Consequence

An Individuals desire to be perceived as socially acceptable/popular can consequentially lead to inconsistency between attitude and behaviour

Main Ways of 'Measuring Attitude'

(1) Self Reports

(2) Behavioural Counts

(3) Implicit Association Test

Self Reporting Testing Method

Questionnaires, or surveys, are a common way to measure someone's attitude, as attitudes are subjective in nature. These would either consist of rating scales or open-ended questions.

Advantages of 'Self Reporting' Method

(1) Allows the participant to give a subjective rating of their own perception of their attitude

(2) Allows them to rate the 'extent' to which they agree or disagree

(3) Qualitative questions allow participants to explain the 'why' behind their attitude

Disadvantages of 'Self Reporting' Method

(1) Social desirability may cause responses to not be truthful/accurate

(2) Not all people are capable of articulating their thoughts accurately

(3) A person may not be consciously aware that they hold a particular attitude

Behavioural Counts Testing Method

Behavioural counts are an objective method used to measure attitudes. Researchers infer a connection between behaviour and attitude.

Advantages of Behavioural Counts Method

(1) Objective in measurement

(2) Easy method to gather data from a distance

Disadvantages of Behavioural Counts

(1) Not necessarily an accurate measurement, due to the inconsistency between attitudes and behaviours

(2) Cannot measure strength of an attitude

Implicit Association Test Method

The IAT attempts to bridge the gap between self-reported attitudes and behaviour. This test is used to measure attitudes towards topics such as gender roles, racism and ageism.

Advantages of Implicit Association Test Method

(1) Considers that attitudes and behaviours are not always consistent

(2) Is an 'implicit' test so should be free from bias

(3) Objective measurement

Disadvantages of Implicit Association Test Method

Can be influenced by external factors

i.e. the amount of sleep an individual has had

Stereotyping

A cognitive belief or assumption about an individual based solely on their membership to a group, regardless of individual characteristics (these apply to all members of the group).

e.g believing all females are good at cooking

Predjudice

A negative attitude (cognitive/ emotions) towards an individual based solely on their membership to a particular group.

e.g not liking someone purely because they are part of the 'footy players' group

Discrimination

An action towards (behavioural) an individual because they belong to a particular group.

e.g bullying/harassing someone because they are part of a certain group

Tokenism

An instance in which a member of a distinctive category/minority is placed into a superficial role for the primary purpose of surface level inclusion and performance

Links between 'Stereotyping', 'Predjudice' and 'Discrimination'

Stereotype → Prejudice (Overgeneralisation of Beliefs)

Prejudice → Discrimination

(Emotional Influence of Treatment)

Prejudice + Stereotyping → Discrimination (Negative Bias)

Components that contribute to 'Prejudice' Formation

(1) Unintentional Bias

(2) Direct and Indirect Experience

(3) Observational Learning (Social Learning Theory)

Unintentional Bias Influence on Prejudice

Confirmation Bias → Selective favouring of Information/fact

Attribution Bias → Equating positives to internal forces and vice verse

Gender Bias → Putting one Gender over another

Conformity Bias-> Bias based on wanting to fit in

Exposure Influence on Prejudice

Direct Experience/Exposure = Forms harder to change and generally stronger attitudes

Indirect Experience/Exposure = Forms easier to change and generally weaker attitudes

Observational Learning Influence on Prejudice

Attention: Observer must pay attention in order to learn

Retention: Observer codes behavioural codes into long term memory

Reproduction: Observer must have capacity to reproduce behaviour

Motivation: Observer expects positive behavioural reinforcement

Psychological Consequences 'Prejudice' being Perpetuated

(1) Social Stigmatisation

(2) Internalisation of External Evaluation

(3) Stereotype Threats

Social Stigma Negative Impact

Internalised stigma is when an individual impacted by / absorbs / believes negative stereotypes about themselves.

Effects Include: Individuals start to act in ways that fit their stereotype, Low self worth/self esteem

Internalisation of External Evaluation Negative Impact

The 'Pygmalion Effect'

Actions towards others → Others beliefs about us → Others actions towards us → Our beliefs about ourselves

Stereotype Threat Negative Impact

Occurs when someone is in a situation for which a stereotype about their group applies, and they are at-risk of conforming to the stereotype.

Effects Include: Contributes to long-standing stereotypes, Hinders individuals to perform to their full potential

Strategies that work towards Changing 'Attitudes' and Unpacking 'Prejudice'

(1) Education Initiatives

(2) Intergroup Contact

(3) Direct Experiences

Education Impact Positive Impact

Programs and representative weeks/days within high, middle and pre school environments push to teach children about tolerance, community, consequences of prejudice

Intergroup Contact Positive Impact

Direct contact between groups/communities of people who have prejudicial attitudes towards each other, requiring consistent, mutually interdependant action and equity

Direct Experience Positive Impact

Travelling and directly experiencing another culture / way of life creates empathy and understanding for it

Classical Conditioning

A learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired (an association). A response, which is at first elicited by an unconditioned stimulus, is eventually elicited by what had previously been a neutral stimulus.

Relationship between Unconditioned Stimuli (UCS), Condition Stimuli (CS), Unconditioned Response (UCR) and Conditioned Response (CR)?

Pre Conditioning

neutral stimuli = no response

unconditioned stimuli = unconditioned response

During Conditioning

neutral stimuli + unconditioned stimuli = unconditioned response (repeated)

Post Conditioning

controlled stimuli = controlled response

Pavlov's Dog Experiment

An experiment that provided the basis for classical conditioning. Dogs were trained to salivate at the sound of a specific bell due to repeatedly being fed red meat when it rang.

Flight or Fight Response

A stress response which is activated by the sympathetic nervous system (stress system) during periods of perceived stress/a threat

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

A form of psychotherapy that aims to change cognitive distortions and self-defeating behaviors through repetition

Neutral Stimuli

Stimuli that does not produce an automatic response

Unconditioned Stimuli

A biologically relevant stimuli that naturally elicits a response without prior association or conditioning

Controlled Stimuli

A phenomenon where a subject consistently exhibits specific behaviors in the presence of a discriminative stimulus

Unconditioned Response

A biologically relevant reaction that occurs in the direct aftermath of the uncontrolled stimuli

Controlled Response

A learnt reaction triggered through a neutral stimuli’s repeated application

Mental Health

a state of mental well-being that enables people to cope with the stresses of life, realize their abilities, learn and work well, and contribute to their community

Factors of Good Sleep Hygiene

Routine maintenance, limited screen time, physical activity, avoidance of caffeine before bed

Depression

a serious illness that affects mood, thoughts, behaviour, and physical health consistently and impacts day to day activities in varying levels.

Anxiety

A normal stress response, but becomes a disorder when intense, persistent, and interfering with daily life.

Factors of Bad Sleep Hygiene

Irregularity surrounding bedtime, late night exposure to screens, napping

Recency Bias

Influences impression through the psychological weight of recent interaction and information

Primacy Bias

Influences impression through the psychological weight of initial interaction and information

Social Media Positives

Communication/connection with peers and like minded people, accessibility of information,avenue of self expression

Social Media Negatives

Self Image, disruption of physical wellbeing (eating and sleeping), peer pressure suseptibility, depression and anxiety

Impression Management

The conscious or subconscious process in which individuals attempt to influence how others perceive them by controlling and regulating information during social interactions

Low Self Monitoring

Less likely to change behaviour off the influence of social cues and information

Operant Conditioning

A learning method where voluntary behaviors are shaped through the consequences that follow them

Ethnocentrism

The practice of judging other cultures, traditions, and behaviors using the standards and values of one's own culture, often with the belief that one's own group is superior

Ethnocentric Bias

The tendency to judge, interpret, and evaluate other cultures, behaviors, and mental processes exclusively through the lens of one’s own cultural or ethnic group

Observational Learning

The process of acquiring new behaviors, skills, or attitudes by watching and modeling another person rather than relying on direct experience