nervous system/neurotransmitters

CNS includes

brain and spinal cord

PNS includes

somatic and autonomic nervous system

transmits signals between the CNS and the rest of the body

PNS

responsibility of the PNS

transmits signals between the CNS and the rest of the body

SNS transmits information from ___ → ___ → ___

sensory receptors → CNS → skeletal muscles

transmits information from sensory receptors → CNS → skeletal muscles

SNS

ANS transmits information from ___ → ___ → ___

smooth muscles/organs → CNS → smooth muscles/organs

responsible for voluntary actions

SNS

responsible for involuntary actions but some can be brought under voluntary control using biofeedback

ANS

contains fight-or-flight

sympathetic nervous system

ANS is divided into

sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

PNS contains ___ and ___

somatic (SNS) and autonomic (ANS) nervous systems

ANS contains ___ and ___

sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are both active to some degree most of the time and work together cooperatively (T/F)

T

sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are both involved in ___

most things, including the male sexual response

the nervous system contains two types of cells

neurons and glia

neurons are responsible for

communicating information within the nervous system

responsible for communicating information within the nervous system

neurons

glia are responsible for

several functions, including providing neurons with structural support, insulation, and nutrients

responsible for several functions, including providing neurons with structural support, insulation, and nutrients

glia

neurons contain

dendrite, soma, axon

contains dendrite, soma, axon

neurons

Soma contains

nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, and other elements essential for survival of the cell

contains nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, and other elements essential for survival of the cell

Soma

produced by glia and speeds up conduction of information through the axon

myelin

myelin

produced by glia and speeds up conduction of information through the axon

what are axons insulated with

myelin

part of the neuron that receives stimulation from other neurons

dendrite

prior to stimulation, when the neuron is in a resting state, is the fluid inside the cell positively or negatively charged?

negatively charged

when a neurson is sufficiently stimulated, channels in the cell membrane open, allowing ____ charged sodium ions to center the cell, which causes it to be ____ (less ____

positively charged; depolarized = less negative

when stimulation of a neuron reaches its minimum threshold, complete depolarization occurs and this triggers an electrical impulse known as

action potential

after action potential

returns to resting state

in order for action potential to occur, the cell must be completely ___

depolarized (positive)

when an action potential occurs, what determines the intensity?

they are all-or-nothing responses, and the intensity is always the same.

the stimulus intensity associated with an action potential is determined by

the frequency of the action potential (not the intensity, since it is always the same)

synaptic transmission

transmission (usually chemical) of information between neurons

when does synaptic transmission begin

when the action potential reaches the axon terminal (the end of the axon) causing the release of a neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft

end of the axon

axon terminal

synaptic cleft

space between the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron and the dendrite of an adjacent postsynaptic neuron

mirror neurons

specialized brain cells that are active when people perform (or watch others perform) goal-direct (not random) actions

specialized brain cells discovered through monkeys that are active when people perform (or watch others perform) goal-direct actions. located in premotor cortex, parietal lobe, and temporal lobe

mirror neurons

mirror neurons are responsible for

imitation, language acquisition, empathy, emotion contagion, intention recognition, theory of mind

responsible for imitation, language acquisition, empathy, emotion contagion, intention recognition, theory of mind

mirror neurons

disorders linked to mirror neurons

autism, schizophrenia, PTSD

homologous area adaptation

type of neuroplasticity that occurs when the function of a brain area switches to the corresponding area in the opposite cortex

occurs when the function of a brain area switches to the corresponding area in the opposite cortex

homologous area adaptation

an example of this is when the left parietal lobe is damaged and the right parietal lobe takes over its visuospatial functions

homologous area adaptation

cross-modal reassignment

a type of neuroplasticity when the brain area responsible for processing a particular type of sensory input is deprived of that input so the function of the neurons in that area changes

when the brain area responsible for processing a particular type of sensory input is deprived of that input so the function of the neurons in that area changes

cross-modal reassignment

an example of this is when the neurons in the visual cortex of a child who was born blind do not process visual input so they start receiving somatosensory input, like visual input, allowing the child to still form cognitive representations of the world

cross-modal reassignment

map extension

a type of neuroplasticity when the enlargement of a functioning cortical region as the result of practice or exercise and involves recruiting neurons from the borders of that region. occurs when when people are learning and practicing a new skill such as playing a musical instrument

a type of neuroplasticity when the enlargement of a functioning cortical region as the result of practice or exercise and involves recruiting neurons from the borders of that region.

map extension

this type of neuroplasticity occurs when someone is learning or practicing an instrument

map extension

compensatory masquerade

a type of neuroplasticity when the person can no longer perform a task using cognitive processes mediated by a recently damaged area of the brain

a type of neuroplasticity when the person can no longer perform a task using cognitive processes mediated by a recently damaged area of the brain

compensatory masquerade

an example of this is when people lose their spatial sense (sense of direction) as a result of brain injury, so they rely on landmarks to get from one place to the other

compensatory masquerade

this type of neurotransmitter is stored in the synaptic vesicles at the presynaptic terminal and are released in response to an action potential, and activate postsynaptic receptors (e.g., small molecule neurotransmitters and neuropeptides)

conventional neurotransmitters

conventional neurotransmitters

stored in the synaptic vesicles at the presynaptic terminal and are released in response to an action potential, and activate postsynaptic receptors (e.g., small molecule neurotransmitters and neuropeptides)

small-molecule neurotransmitter vs neuropeptide

small-molecule are smaller and synthesized in the axon terminal, while neuropeptides are synthesized in the cell body and transmitted to the axon terminal

dopamine, acetecholin, etc are an example of ___ transmitters and enkephalin and endorphin are ___

small-molecule neurotransmitter; neuropeptide (both are types of conventational neurotransmitters)

small-molecule neurotransmitters and neuropeptides conventional or unconventional neurotransmitters

conventional

examples of small-molecule neurotransmitters and examples of neuropeptides

small molecule: dopamine, acetylcholine

neuropeptides: enkephalin and endorphin (opiods with analgesic and euphoric effects)

unconventional neurotransmitters

not stored in synaptic vesicles but are synthesized on demand in response to a conventional neurotransmitter or other stimulus, released in various places in the neuron and may carry signals in the reverse direction

type of neurotransmitter not stored in synaptic vesicles but are synthesized on demand in response to a conventional neurotransmitter or other stimulus, released in various places in the neuron and may carry signals in the reverse direction

unconventional neurotransmitter

are endocannabinoids conventional or unconventional neurotransmitters

unconventional

endocannabinoid system (ECS) is responsible for

maintaining homeostasis, immune functions, reward functions

the main endocannabinoid that plays a role in pain, emotions, memory, appetite, sleep, and the rewarding and addictive effects of drugs

anandamide

anandamide (the bliss molecule)

an endocannabinoid responsible for the rewarding and additive effects of drugs and drug abuse, as well as other various roles (appetite, sleep, pain, emotions, etc)

is dopamine excitatory or inhibitory

both

is AcH excitatory or inhibitory

both

is glutamate excitatory or inhibitory

excitatory

is norepinephrine excitatory or inhibitory

primarily excitatory but has an inhibitory effect on certain receptors

is serotonin excitatory or inhibitory

primarily inhibitory but has an excitatory effect on certain receptors

is GABA excitatory or inhibitory

inhibitory

small-molecule neurotransmitter that contributes to movement, personality, mood, sleep, motivation, reward

dopamine

reward circuit

mesolimbic pathway where dopamine is released, responsible for the rewarding and addicting effects of drugs

elevated levels of activity in this pathway are responsible for the rewarding/addictive effects of drugs

mesolimbic

disorders linked to low dopamine

parkinson’s (in substantia nigra) and ADHD (in prefrontal cortex)

high ___ and ___, and low ___ are linked to ADHD

GABA/norepinephrine and dopamine in the PFC

low dopamine and high GABA and norepinephrine in the PFC causes

ADHD

tourettes is linked to high ___

dopamine

high ___ and low ___ are linked to Parkinson’s

glutamate, dopamine

high ___ and low ___ are linked to Alzheimer’s

glutamate, AcH

high glutamate and low AcH are linked to

Alzheimer’s

high glutamate and low dopamine are linked to

Parkinson’s

high ___ and low ___ and abnormal GABA are linked to schizophrenia

dopamine, serotonin

high dopamine and low serotonin and abnormal GABA are linked to

schizophrenia

high ___ is linked to Huntington’s

glutamate

high glutamate is linked to

Huntington’s

low ___, ___, and ___is linked to depression

dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine

low dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine is linked to

depression

high ___ and low ___ is linked to anxiety

serotonin, GABA

high serotonin and low GABA is linked to

anxiety

low levels of dopamine are associated with ___ and ___ while high levels are associated with ___

Parkinson’s, ADHD, Tourettes

high levels of dopamine in the caudate nucleus are associated with ___

Tourette’s

dopamine hypothesis

high dopamine in subcortical (especially striatal regions) = positive symptoms of schizophrenia

low dopamine in cortical regions (especially PFC) = negative symptoms of schizophrenia

according to the dopamine hypothesis in schizophrenia, high levels of dopamine in ___ causes positive symptoms while low levels of dopamine in ___ cause negative symptoms

subcortical (especially striatal regions)

cortical regions (especially PFC)

is AcH excitatory or inhibitory

both

AcH is involved in

movement, arousal, attention, memory

myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune disorder that causes muscle weakness by destroying ___ receptors

AcH