Problems of Normal Life Exam 2

Key Terms and Key People

Assertiveness

acting in one’s own best interests by expressing one’s thoughts and feelings directly and honestly

Channel

the medium through which the message is sent

Communication apprehension

the anxiety caused by having to talk with others

Context

the environment in which communication takes place

Defensiveness

an excessive concern with protecting oneself from being hurt

Display rules

norms that govern the appropriate display of emotions in a culture

Electronically mediated communication

interpersonal communication that takes place via technology

Interpersonal communication

an interactional process in which one person sends a message to another

Interpersonal conflict

when two or more people disagree

Kinesics

the study of communication through body movements

Listening

 a mindful activity and complex process requiring one to select and organize

Message

the information transmitted by the source

Noise

any stimulus that interferes with accurately expressing or understanding a message

Nonverbal communication

the transmission of meaning from one person to another through means or symbols other than words

Nonverbal sensitivity

the ability to accurately encode (express) and decode (understand) nonverbal cues

Paralanguage

all vocal cues other than the content of the verbal message itself

Personal space

a zone of space surrounding a person that is felt to “belong” to that person

Polygraph

a device that records fluctuations in physiological arousal as a person answers questions

Proxemics

the study of people’s use of interpersonal space

Receiver

the person to whom the message is sent

Self-disclosure

the voluntary act of sharing information about yourself with another person

Sender

the person who initiates the message

Ableism

a form of prejudice and discrimination that relies on stereotypes, attitudes, and socially oppressive behavior aimed at people with disabilities

Attitudes

beliefs and feelings about people, objects, and ideas

Attributions

inferences that people draw about the causes of their own behavior, others’ behavior, and events

Bystander effect

the tendency for individuals to be less likely to provide help when others are present than when they are alone

Channel

the medium through which the message is sent

Compliance

occurs when people yield to social pressure in their public behavior, even though their private beliefs have not changed

Confirmation bias

the tendency to seek information that supports one’s beliefs while not pursuing any disconfirming information

Conformity

occurs when people yield to real or imagined social pressure

Defensive attribution

a tendency to blame victims for their misfortune, so that one feels less likely to be victimized in a similar way

Discrimination

behaving differently, usually unfairly, toward members of a group

Door-in-the-face technique

technique involves making a large request that is likely to be turned down in order to increase the chances that people will agree to a smaller request later

Elaboration likelihood model

an individual’s thoughts about a persuasive message (rather than the actual message itself) determine whether attitude change will occur

Foot-in-the-door technique

involves getting people to agree to a small request to increase the chances that they will agree to a larger request later

Informational influence

operates when people look to others for how to behave in ambiguous situations

Lowball technique

involves getting someone to commit to an attractive proposition before its hidden costs are revealed

Message

the information transmitted by the source

Microaggression

a comment, act, or event considered to be a case of indirect, subtle, or unintentional discrimination against the member of a marginalized group

Need for cognition

the tendency to seek out and enjoy effortful thought, problem-solving activities, and in-depth analysis

Normative influence

operates when people conform to social norms for fear of negative social consequences

Obedience

a form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority

Person perception

the process of forming impressions of others

Persuasion

the communication of arguments and information intended to change another person’s attitudes

Prejudice

a negative attitude towards members of a group

Primacy effect

initial information carries more weight than subsequent information

Receiver

the person to whom the message is sent

Reciprocity principle

the rule that one should pay back in kind what one receives from others

Self-fulfilling prophecy

occurs when expectations about a person cause them to behave in ways that confirm the expectation

Source

the person who sends a communication

Stereotypes

widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics because of their membership in a particular group

Systemic racism

practices, policies, and privileges within a society providing unfair advantages to the members of one race while maintaining unfair and harmful treatment of members of another race

Basking in reflected glory

the tendency to enhance one’s image by publicly announcing one’s association with those who are successful

Collectivism

involves putting group goals ahead of personal goals and defining one’s identity in terms of the groups which one belongs to

Downward social comparison

a defensive tendency to compare oneself with someone whose troubles are more serious than one’s own

Explanatory style

the tendency to use similar causal attributions for a wide variety of events in one’s life (tendency to want to explain why things happen and this includes personalization, permanence, and pervasiveness)

External attributions

ascribing the causes of behavior to situational demands and environmental constraints

Imposter syndrome

when a person feels they are a phony or a fraud, that they do not deserve the accomplishments they have garnered and that their true nature may be discovered at any moment

Impression management

usually conscious efforts by people to influence how others think of them

Individualism

putting personal goals ahead of group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group memberships. 

Ingratiation

behaving in ways to make oneself likable to others

Internal attributions

ascribing the causes of behavior to personal dispositions, traits, abilities, and feelings

Possible selves

one’s conceptions about the kind of person one might become in the future

Pubilc self

an image presented to others in social interactions

Reference group

a set of people who are used as a gauge in making social comparisons

Self

refers to our individual personal identity and who we believe we are as a person

Self-attributions

inferences that people draw about the causes of their own behavior

Self-concept

a collection of beliefs about one’s own basic nature, unique qualities, and typical behavior

Self-defeating behaviors

seemingly intentional acts that thwart a person’s self-interest

Self-discrepancy

a mismatch between the self-perceptions that make up the actual self, the ideal self, and the ought self

Self-efficacy

refers to one’s belief about one’s ability to perform behaviors that should lead to expected outcomes.

Self-enhancement

the tendency to seek positive (and reject negative) information about oneself

Self-esteem

refers to one’s overall assessment of one’s worth as a person

Self-handicapping

a psychological defense mechanism where people create obstacles or excuses before a task so they can blame outside factors instead of their own ability if they fail

Self-monitoring

the degree to which people attend to and control the impressions they make on others

Self-reference effect

information processed in relation to the self is remembered better than non-related information

Self-regulation

the process of directing and controlling one’s behavior to achieve desired goals

Self-serving bias

the tendency to attribute one’s successes to personal factors and one’s failures to situational factors

Social comparison theory

proposes that individuals compare themselves with others in order to assess their abilities and opinions

Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)

a disorder in which the immune system is gradually weakened and eventually disabled by the human immunodeficiency virus

Alcohol dependence/alcohol use disorder

is a chronic, progressive disorder marked by a growing compulsion to drink and impaired control over drinking that eventually interferes with health and social behavior

Atherosclerosis

the principal cause of coronary disease and the gradual narrowing of the coronary arteries

Biopsychosocial model

holds that physical illness is caused by a complex interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.

Body mass index (BMI)

weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared (kg/ m²)

Cancer

refers to malignant cell growth, which may occur in many organ systems in the body

Cannabis

the hemp plant from which marijuana, hashish, and THC are derived

Coronary heart disease

results from a reduction in blood flow through the coronary arteries, which supply the heart with blood (causes 90% of heart related deaths)

Hallucinogens

a diverse group of drugs that have powerful effects on mental and emotional functioning, marked most prominently by distortions in sensory and perceptual experience.

Health psychology

is concerned with how psychosocial factors relate to the promotion and maintenance of health and with the causation, prevention, and treatment of illness.

Hostility

refers to a persistent negative attitude marked by cynical, mistrusting thoughts, feelings of anger, and overtly aggressive actions

Immune response

the body’s defensive reaction to invasion by bacteria, viral agents, or other foreign substances

MDMA

a compound related to both amphetamines and hallucinogens, especially mescaline; it produces a high that typically lasts a few hours or more.

Narcotics

drugs derived from opium that are capable of relieving pain

Nutrition

a collection of processes (mainly food consumption) through which an organism utilizes the materials required for survival and growth

Overdose

an excessive dose of a drug that can seriously threaten one’s life

Physical dependence

a person must continue to take a drug to avoid withdrawal illnesses which occur when drug use is terminated

Psychological dependence

a person must continue to take a drug to satisfy intense mental and emotional craving for it

Sedatives

sleep-inducing drugs that tend to decrease central nervous system and behavioral activity

Set-point theory

proposes that the body monitors fat-cell levels to keep them (and weight) fairly stable (suggests that people’s bodies have a natural point of stability in body weight)

Settling-point theory

proposes that weight tends to drift around the level at which the constellation of factors that determine food consumption and energy expenditure achieve an equilibrium (weight remains stable when there are no changes in the factors that influence it such as diet, exercise, stress or sleep)