PSY 120 Module 7: Memory

Memory

retention/retrieval of information and experiences over time

encoding

how memories are initially acquired

storage

how memories are maintained

retrieval

how stored memories are retrieved and translates into performance

selectve attention

selectively focusing on a certain thing

divided attention

focusing on more than one thing (makes encoding more difficult)

shallow processing

noting physical features of something

intermediate processing

recognizing something and giving it a label

deep processing

thnking about the meaning of something

elaboration

forming connections for what is being encoded (more connections and at a deeper level is better for encoding)

elaboration techniques

1. come up with specific examples

2. self reference: think about how something relates to yourself

3. ask yourself questions about new info (how it works and why)

4. notice similarities between new things and what you already know

5. notice differences between new things and what you already know

6. repeat knowledge (spaced repitition works best)

imagery

creating mental pictures or sensory experiences in your mind without any external physical input (helps with encoding)

systems of storage in the Atkinson theory

1. sensory memory

2. short term memory

3. long term memory

sensory memory

after stimulus disappears brain retains very brief raw sensations, has a very large compacity, near exact copies

icon

visual sensory memory, lasts around 0.25 seconds

echo

auditory sensory memory, lasts about 2 seconds

short term memory

information we are selectively attending to, memory span: 5-9 chunks of info, lasts around 30 seconds

inner voice

This is the ability to "hear" words, sentences, or internal dialogue inside your head

inner eyes

This is the ability to "see" pictures, shapes, faces, or scenes in your mind’s eye when your eyes are closed or open

rehearsal

The conscious repetition or active manipulation of information to keep it in short-term (working) memory or transfer it into long-term memory

chunking

the cognitive process of grouping individual pieces of information into larger, familiar, and more meaningful units (or "chunks")

working memory

how individuals manipulate/work with short term memory (correlated with intelligence while short term is not)

long term memory

unlimited storage, detail level varies, info can be permanent by distorted

explicit long term memory

who, what, when, where, why (conscious recollection), broken into episodic and semantic

implicit long term memory

nonconscious recollection, broken into procedural, classical conditioning, and priming; less likely to be lost during amnesia

episodic memory

things we have personally experienced

semantic memory

general knowledge, facts, and word meanings

procedural memory

common physical procedures/muscle memory (robust to amnesia)

classical conditioning

linking things together (my love song example…)

priming

prior influence to someone’s mind

how are long term memories organized

schemas

schemas

pre-existing concept/framework to organize and interpret information (sometimes schemas can lead us astray —> produce false memories)

retrieval

when retained information comes out of storage

serial positioning

information encoded early or last is easier to retrieve

primacy

encoded early on (easy to retrieve)

recency

encoded more recently (easy to retrieve)

retrieval cue

any external or internal stimulus (such as a sight, sound, smell, feeling, or location) that helps you access and bring a stored memory out of your long-term memory into conscious awareness

recall task

generate something (short response on a test)

recognition

recognize something from your memory (mcq on a test)

encoding specificity

memory recall is most successful when the conditions and context at the time of retrieval match the conditions and context present when the information was originally encoded

flashbulb memory

highly rich, detailed memories of a significant moment (easy to retrieve). sometimes we are certain, but incorrect of its accuracy

traumatic memories

often trigger high emotional arousal and stress hormones, which can make specific sensory details (such as a flash, a sound, a smell, or a sharp image) feel extremely vivid, persistent, and "indelible"

long lasting, but memory of them is often fragmented

repressed memories

traumatic or stressful events that the brain allegedly pushes out of conscious awareness into the unconscious mind as a protective defense mechanism

no complete consensus as to whether or not memories are ever repressed

misinformation effect

happens when a person's recall of an episodic memory becomes distorted because they were exposed to misleading information or leading questions after the event occurred

Loftus experiment

showed all participants footage of the same car wreck , and asked how fast (in mph) the car was going when they ___ (bumped, collided, crashed, etc.) into each other

result: answer of speed went up with more critical word in the blank (example of a schema)

biased lineups in an eye witness testimony

even if correct person ins’t there, someone will be picked and then the selector will think they clearly remember the person they falsely chose. the more a story/memory is repeated the more certain someone is (even if more distorted)

how to improve eye witness testimonies

• ask non leading questions

• interview ASAP

• don’t use biased lineups: use open-ended lineups (show one person at a time then ask yes or no)

• double-blinded procedure for lineups: neither interviewer or interviewee knows if the suspect is included

interference

Forgetting occurs because other memories compete with or disrupt the retrieval of the target memory, especially when the memories are similar.

decay

Forgetting occurs because the physical memory trace (engram) in the brain weakens and fades over time simply from disuse

tip of the tongue phenomenon

A temporary retrieval failure where you feel certain you know a piece of information and can often recall partial details (like the first letter or number of syllables), but cannot fully access the word or name at that moment

retroactive interference

Newly learned information makes it harder to recall previously learned information.

proactive interference

Previously learned information makes it harder to learn or recall new information

Does Decay Explain Most Instances of Forgetting?

no, the role of experience over time and retrieval cue failure play a larger role

retrograde amnesia

The inability to retrieve old memories formed before the onset of amnesia (e.g., forgetting your childhood, past events, or the accident that caused the injury, while still being able to form new memories afterward

anterograde amnesia

The inability to form new long-term memories after the onset of amnesia (e.g., remembering everything from your past prior to a brain injury, but being unable to retain new conversations, names, or events going forward)