Soci theory midterm #1

What were the defining forces of the long 19th century?

Industrialization, urbanization, and democratization.

What was the “long 19th century”?

1780s–1918; a period of major social, political, and economic upheaval.

What did “from subjects to citizens” mean?

People gained political power as citizens rather than being subjects of kings and queens.

What is democratization?

The shift toward political power coming from citizens through voting.

What was the Ideological Revolution?

The Enlightenment, roughly 1680–1790.

What was the Industrial Revolution?

Industrialization and the shift to machine production, roughly 1750–1830.

What was the Political Revolution?

The rise of nationalism and political change, roughly 1789–1849.

What happened to the nation-state during this period?

Nation-states gained power as empires declined.

How did education change during this period?

Literacy spread across Europe, allowing people to read, write, and communicate more widely.

What was industrialization?

The shift from agricultural/manual labour to machine production and profit-driven work.

What became sources of wealth after industrialization?

Technology and labour, alongside control of capital.

What was land enclosure?

The loss of access to land that had supported families.

What was the shift from farms to factories?

Agricultural and manual labour shifted to factory and machine production.

What was the Great Migration?

Millions moved from rural areas to cities for work.

When did industrialization occur in England?

Roughly 1780–1830.

Why did industrialization occur at different times?

Its timing varied across regions, partly due to colonization.

What was the Second Industrial Revolution?

New technologies like electricity, railways, and telephones.

How did technology affect jobs?

Machines increased efficiency but reduced jobs.

What were the bases of early industrial production?

Coal and iron.

What was urbanization?

Rapid city growth as people moved for work.

What was social dislocation?

Traditional communities and social ties were disrupted.

How did factory work change life?

Clocks, schedules, shifts, and strict rules controlled workers.

What was new labour discipline?

Factory management controlled workers' time and tasks.

What was the shift from moral to rational community?

Business replaced traditional social bonds.

What was the modern nation-state?

A bureaucratic state with mass education and standardized language.

What was mass national identity?

Creating a shared, more homogeneous national identity.

What were the problems of industrialization?

Exploitation, child labour, overcrowding, disease, alcoholism, depression, and no social safety nets.

How did conservative theorists view industrialization?

They opposed changes to traditional ways of life.

What did “river of shit that turned into gold” mean?

Workers created wealth that went to factory owners.

How did industrialization affect traditional authority?

It weakened traditional authority and severed traditional family and community ties.

What new forms of authority developed after industrialization?

Factory management and regulated work replaced many traditional forms of authority.

How did Durkheim describe industrial society?

Industrialization created a new division of labor and shifted society from mechanical to organic solidarity.

How did political revolutions change empires?

They dislodged empires and helped create modern political systems based on nations.

What was divine mandate?

Monarchs claimed authority from God, making their rule and social order seem divinely justified.

How was society organized before the political revolutions?

People were generally born into fixed social classes, with land and power concentrated among elites.

What was citizenship based on before modern citizenship?

Class, corporate privileges, property ownership, and wealth, excluding large groups of people.

How was citizenship redefined after the revolutions?

Citizenship became based on law and territory rather than mainly on wealth or social class.

How did modern citizenship change political participation?

Political participation and rights became open in principle to all citizens.

What did modern citizenship help create?

It paved the way for modern liberal democratic citizenship.

How did the French Revolution change political authority?

It shifted authority toward rule by the people and challenged the king's absolute power.

What was the significance of the National Assembly?

It represented political authority shifting from the monarch toward the people.

What did the Declaration of the Rights of Man establish?

Freedom, equality, national sovereignty, and liberty as principles of the new political order.

What happened to sovereignty after the French Revolution?

Sovereignty became vested in the nation rather than solely in the monarch.

What changed from subjects to citizens?

People became political members of the nation rather than simply subjects of a monarch.

What was Rousseau's social contract?

Political authority was understood as an agreement between the people and government.

What did nationalism emphasize after the revolutions?

The nation, sovereignty, and self-determination, with greater focus on the here and now.

How did political revolutions contribute to democratization?

They helped create modern citizenship and expanded political participation, beginning with male suffrage and later universal suffrage.

How were colonialism and racial capitalism connected to political revolutions?

Political change also contributed to colonialism, resource extraction, and imperialist ideology.

What were the limitations of political revolutions?

Changes were uneven, excluded many people, and must be understood alongside colonialism and racism.

What three types of change need to be considered together?

Economic, political, and changes in ideas.

What was the Enlightenment?

17th–18th century European movement emphasizing reason, science, education, and progress.

What did the Enlightenment reject?

Given social ideas and traditions in favor of questioning society through reason.

What was the morally autonomous individual?

An individual free to think for themselves and make their own moral choices.

What is empiricism?

Knowledge based on observation and experiment, associated with Newton, Locke, and Hume.

What is rationalism?

The belief that the world is ordered, logical, and understandable through human reason.

What did the Enlightenment encourage people to do?

Question established ideas and use reason and knowledge rather than simply accepting tradition.

What did Kant argue about individual freedom?

True freedom comes from using your own reason to make moral choices rather than relying on others.

What did Kant believe about morality?

Moral norms and choices come from within the individual.

How did Kant's ideas extend beyond the individual?

Ideas about individual freedom and self-determination influenced society and national self-determination.

What is national self-determination?

The idea that nations should have the ability to determine their own political future.

What major revolutions were linked to Enlightenment ideas?

England 1688, America 1776, and France 1789.

What is the social contract?

The idea that political authority is based on an agreement between people and the state.

What did John Locke believe about sovereignty?

The people are sovereign, meaning political power ultimately comes from the people.

What were Locke's natural rights?

Life, liberty, and estate, including private property.

What was Locke's right to resist?

People could resist a government that became tyrannical, including through civil disobedience or revolution.

How did Locke view the relationship between people and the state?

He separated the people from government institutions and argued that people have rights beyond the authority of a king.

How did Hobbes view human nature?

He viewed humans as naturally inclined toward conflict and evil without government control.

What was Hobbes's state of nature?

A condition of war between everyone, where life was insecure, poor, and dangerous.

Why did Hobbes support an absolute sovereign?

A strong government was needed to control human conflict and maintain peace.

Why do people submit to government according to Hobbes?

People give up some freedom and submit to authority in exchange for security and peace.

What did Rousseau believe about human nature?

Humans are born free and innocent; social institutions corrupt people.

What did Rousseau see as the root of inequality?

Private property, which allows wealth and power to become concentrated.

What did Rousseau mean by “born free, yet everywhere in chains”?

People are naturally free, but social institutions and inequality restrict their freedom.

How does Rousseau view the social contract?

It should connect people to one another in society rather than place them under someone above them.

What is classical liberalism?

An ideology emphasizing individual freedom, rights, equality, tolerance, and limited government.

What is the liberal view of human nature?

Generally optimistic, viewing individuals as capable of making choices and governing themselves.

What does classical liberalism emphasize?

The individual, personal freedoms, individual rights, and equality of rights.

How does classical liberalism view state power?

Government power should be limited so it does not unnecessarily restrict individual liberty.

What was Edmund Burke's view of the French Revolution?

He opposed it because it overturned established social order, tradition, and authority.

What is classical conservatism?

A reaction to revolution emphasizing tradition, social order, hierarchy, authority, and gradual change.

How does conservatism view society?

Society is like an organism where past, present, and future are connected.

How does conservatism view the individual and society?

Society and collective needs are prioritized over individual interests.

What does classical conservatism value?

Law and order, tradition, hierarchy, authority, patriotism, civic virtue, and inherited customs.

Why do conservatives oppose rapid change?

They believe sudden change can destroy social order and create chaos.

How does classical conservatism view the state?

The state has a positive role and can actively maintain hierarchy, order, and the public good.

Enlightenment vs. conservatism

Enlightenment emphasizes individualism, reason, and science; conservatism emphasizes collectivism, tradition, and religious beliefs.

What was Romanticism?

A 19th-century reaction to Enlightenment rationalism emphasizing emotion, beauty, spirituality, and subjective experience.

Why did Romantics criticize Enlightenment rationalism?

They saw it as cold and overly focused on universal laws, calculation, and reason.

What did Romanticism emphasize?

Feeling, beauty, goodness, truth, spirituality, and the unique inner experience of individuals.

What is romantic nationalism?

The idea that nations have unique cultures and identities rooted in language, history, and shared bonds.

What was Hobbes's main argument?

Strong government is needed because humans are naturally conflict-prone; authority creates peace and security.

What was Locke's main argument?

Government protects natural rights; people can resist or overthrow a tyrannical government.

What was Rousseau's main argument?

People are naturally free and good, but society and private property create inequality and corruption.

What was Kant's main argument?

True freedom comes from using your own reason and making your own moral choices.

What was Burke's main argument?

Rapid revolution threatens social order; tradition and gradual change preserve stability.

What was the main argument of classical liberalism?

Protect individual freedom, equal rights, tolerance, and limit state power.

What was the main argument of classical conservatism?

Prioritize social order, tradition, hierarchy, authority, and gradual change.

What was the main argument of Romanticism?

Reason alone is insufficient; emotion, beauty, spirituality, and individual experience matter.

What was the main argument of Romantic nationalism?

Nations have unique cultures and identities rooted in language, history, and shared bonds.

What is the Romantic concept of nationhood?

Each nation is distinct, with a unique culture rooted in language.