Unit 0: The Foundations of Psychology as a Science

A complete set of vocabulary flashcards covering Unit 0: The Foundations of Psychology as a Science, including research methods, cognitive biases, statistics, and ethical guidelines.

Cognitive Biases

Systematic errors in thinking that act as mental shortcuts to process information easier and quicker, but often lead to incorrect conclusions or irrational decisions.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency, after an event has occurred, to believe that one predicted it beforehand; also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms preexisting beliefs while discounting contradictory evidence.

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one's knowledge, abilities, and judgments.

Theory

A structured explanation in psychology based on principles that organize observations, guide research, and make predictions about behavior.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction derived from a theory that allows psychologists to conduct research that supports or challenges the theory.

Falsifiable

The property of a hypothesis indicating that it can be disproven or proven wrong through empirical evidence.

Operational Definition

A precise specification of how a concept or variable is measured or manipulated in a study to enable exact replication.

Replication

The process of repeating a research study to verify whether the original findings can be reproduced.

Peer Reviewers

Experts who evaluate the quality, methodology, and validity of research before it is published in scientific literature.

Non-Experimental Methodology

Research that observes and describes behavior without manipulating variables or establishing cause-and-effect relationships.

Case Study

An in-depth investigation of a single individual or group to gain detailed qualitative insights into rare or unique situations.

Meta-Analysis

A statistical procedure that combines and analyzes the results of multiple independent studies on the same topic to increase statistical power.

Naturalistic Observation

A research method involving the systematic observation and recording of subjects' behavior in their natural environment without intervention.

Survey

A data collection technique using questionnaires or interviews to gather information from a large group of people quickly.

Population

The entire group of individuals that a researcher is interested in studying and generalizing findings to.

Sample

A smaller subset of individuals selected from a population to participate in a study.

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the demographics and characteristics of the larger target population.

Random Sample

A sampling method where every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected, reducing selection bias.

Convenience Sampling

A non-random sampling method that selects participants who are readily available and accessible to the researcher.

Sampling Bias

Flawed selection that occurs when a sample is chosen in a way that makes it unrepresentative of the overall population.

Social Desirability Bias

A type of response bias where respondents give answers aligned with social expectations rather than their true beliefs.

Self-Report Bias

Inaccurate reporting by participants about themselves due to flawed memories or subjective perceptions.

Experimenter Bias

Unintentional influence exerted by a researcher's expectations on the conduct or outcomes of a study.

Correlation

A statistical relationship between two variables where changes in one variable are associated with changes in another.

Correlation Coefficient

A numerical value ranging from $-1.00$ to $+1.00$ that represents the strength and direction of a correlation.

Scatterplot

A graphical representation of the relationship between two variables where each point represents an observation.

Illusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship between two variables when no actual statistical relationship exists.

Regression Toward the Mean

The statistical tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back toward the average on subsequent measurements.

Experimental Methodology

A research method in which researchers manipulate one or more independent variables to observe their effect on a dependent variable, establishing cause-and-effect relationships.

Independent Variable

The factor in an experiment that is deliberately manipulated or controlled by the researcher.

Dependent Variable

The outcome factor measured in an experiment to evaluate the effect of manipulating the independent variable.

Confounding Variable

An external factor other than the independent variable that could influence the results of an experiment.

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or manipulation being tested.

Control Group

The comparison group in an experiment that does not receive the experimental treatment.

Random Assignment

The process of assigning participants to experimental or control groups by chance to minimize preexisting differences between groups.

Single-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure where participants do not know whether they are in the experimental or control group.

Double-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure where both participants and research staff are unaware of group assignments.

Placebo Effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone, where a participant experiences change simply by believing they received treatment.

Institutional Review Board

A committee that reviews and approves psychological research proposals involving human participants to ensure ethical standards are met.

Informed Consent

An ethical requirement that participants be informed about the study's procedures, risks, and benefits before agreeing to participate.

Informed Assent

The agreement to participate obtained from minors or individuals with diminished capacity, alongside consent from a legal guardian.

Confidentiality

The ethical requirement that participant identity and individual research data be kept private and protected from public disclosure.

Anonymity

A condition in research where data is collected without any identifying information, making it impossible to link responses to specific individuals.

Research Confederates

Individuals who act as regular participants in a study but are secretly part of the research team assisting with deception.

Debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of a study given to participants, disclosing its true purpose, hypotheses, and any deception used.

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee

A committee that reviews and approves research protocols involving non-human animals to ensure humane treatment and minimal distress.

Qualitative Research

Research that focuses on in-depth understanding, non-numerical data, and rich descriptions of phenomena.

Quantitative Research

Research that emphasizes numerical data, standardized measurement tools, and statistical analysis.

Likert Scale

A quantitative rating scale where participants indicate their degree of agreement with statements on a numerical scale.

Reliability

The consistency, stability, or repeatability of a measurement instrument's results.

Construct Validity

The extent to which a test accurately measures the underlying theoretical construct or trait it claims to assess.

Internal Validity

The degree to which an experiment establishes a clear cause-and-effect relationship without interference from confounding variables.

External Validity

The extent to which study results can be generalized to other populations, settings, or real-world situations.

Descriptive Statistics

Numerical procedures used to summarize, organize, and describe the quantitative features of a specific dataset or sample.

Inferential Statistics

Numerical methods used to test hypotheses, make predictions, and draw conclusions about a population based on sample data.

Mean

A measure of central tendency representing the arithmetic average, calculated by dividing the sum of all scores by the total number of scores.

Median

The middle score in a distribution when all numbers are ordered from smallest to largest.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score or value in a data set.

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of the average distance of each score from the mean of a distribution.

Normal Curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution where the mean, median, and mode are equal and located at the center.

Empirical Rule

A statistical rule stating that for a normal curve, approximately $68\%$ of scores fall within $1$ standard deviation of the mean, $95\%$ within $2$, and $99.7\%$ within $3$.

Percentile Rank

The percentage of scores in a distribution that are equal to or lower than a given score.

Skewed Distribution

An asymmetrical frequency distribution where scores trail off toward one tail rather than forming a symmetrical bell curve.

Bimodal Distribution

A distribution featuring two distinct peaks, often indicating the presence of two separate underlying groups in the data.

Statistical Significance

The statistical likelihood that an experimental outcome did not occur by chance, commonly accepted when $p < .05$.

Effect Size

A quantitative measure that expresses the magnitude or strength of a relationship between variables or the difference between groups.