Ancient Persia, Greece, and Hellenistic World: Empires, Wars & Government

Achaemenid Empire

The first major Persian Empire, founded by Cyrus the Great around 550 BCE. It expanded across Southwest Asia, Egypt, and parts of Central Asia and southeastern Europe. The empire reached its greatest extent under Darius I and was eventually conquered by Alexander the Great between 334 and 330 BCE.

Cyrus the Great

Founder of the Achaemenid Empire, who began its expansion around 550 BCE by conquering Media, Lydia, and Babylon. He often allowed conquered peoples to keep their local religions, customs, and leaders as long as they remained loyal and paid tribute, helping him govern a large and diverse empire.

Darius I

Persian king who ruled from 522-486 BCE and strengthened the Achaemenid Empire by organizing it into provinces called satrapies, improving taxation, expanding the road system, and using royal officials to monitor local governors. He also began construction of Persepolis and helped create a more centralized and efficient imperial government.

King of Kings

The supreme Persian ruler who held authority over many peoples, territories, and subordinate rulers. Some regions kept their own kings, while others were governed by Persian-appointed satraps, creating a clear hierarchy with many rulers below but only one supreme ruler at the top.

Satrap and Satrapy

A satrap was a provincial governor. A satrapy was the province he governed.

Tribute

Payments, goods, or military service that conquered peoples and provinces gave to a ruler.

Royal Road

A major Persian road from Sardis to Susa. It helped with messages, inspections, trade, tax collection, and troop movement.

Persepolis

A royal and ceremonial center begun by Darius. Its buildings, inscriptions, and carvings displayed the king's power and the empire's many peoples.

Polis and Poleis

A polis was an independent Greek city-state with its own laws, government, and territory. Poleis is the plural.

Monarchy

Government ruled by one person, usually a hereditary king.

Oligarchy

Government controlled by a small group, often wealthy or aristocratic families.

Tyranny

In ancient Greece, rule by one person who seized power without a hereditary claim or established legal right.

Democracy

Government in which citizens participate in political decision-making. In Athens, eligible male citizens voted directly in the Assembly.

Hoplite

A heavily armed Greek foot soldier. Hoplites were usually citizens who fought side by side in a tight formation.

Panhellenic

Referring to beliefs, practices, or institutions shared by Greeks from many different city-states. Panhellenic festivals and sanctuaries, such as the Olympic Games at Olympia, helped create a sense of common Greek identity even though the poleis remained politically independent.

Ionian Revolt

A rebellion from 499-494 BCE in which Greek city-states in Ionia, on the western coast of Anatolia, attempted to break away from Persian rule. Athens and Eretria provided limited military support. Persia defeated the revolt, but Athenian involvement helped lead to the Persian invasions of mainland Greece and the Persian Wars.

Persian Wars

A series of conflicts between the Persian Empire and several Greek city-states in the early fifth century BCE. The wars grew out of tensions after the Ionian Revolt and included major Persian invasions in 490 BCE and 480-479 BCE. Greek victories at battles such as Marathon, Salamis, and Plataea prevented Persia from conquering mainland Greece and helped increase the power and influence of Athens.

Battle of Marathon (490 BCE)

A major battle in which an Athenian-led Greek force defeated a larger Persian army near Marathon. The victory stopped the first Persian invasion of mainland Greece and showed that the Persians could be defeated.

Battle of Thermopylae (480 BCE)

A battle in which a small Greek force, led by King Leonidas of Sparta, attempted to block the Persian army at a narrow mountain pass. Persia won the battle, but the Greek resistance delayed the Persian advance and became a symbol of sacrifice and courage.

Battle of Salamis (480 BCE)

A major naval battle in which the Greek fleet defeated the Persian navy in the narrow waters near Salamis. The victory weakened Persian control of the sea and made it difficult for Xerxes to continue supporting his invasion.

Battle of Plataea (479 BCE)

A major land battle in which a united Greek army defeated the remaining Persian forces in Greece. The victory effectively ended the second Persian invasion of mainland Greece.

Delian League

An alliance of Greek city-states formed in 478 BCE and led by Athens after the Persian Wars. Its original purpose was to continue fighting Persia and protect Greek cities from future Persian attacks. Member states contributed ships or money, but over time Athens took control of the alliance, moved its treasury to Athens, and used its resources to strengthen Athenian power and create an empire.

Aegospotami

The 405 BCE battle in which Sparta defeated the Athenian fleet. The defeat helped cut Athens off from its grain route and contributed to its surrender in 404 BCE.

Agoge

Sparta's state training system for boys from citizen families, beginning around age seven. It developed discipline, endurance, and cooperation for military service.

Assembly

The political gathering in Athens where male citizens debated and voted directly on major decisions.

Battle of Chaeronea

The 338 BCE battle in which Philip II of Macedon defeated a Greek coalition led by Athens and Thebes, establishing Macedonian dominance over Greece.

Council of 500

An Athenian political body whose members were chosen by lot and prepared business for the Assembly.

Delian League

A naval alliance led by Athens beginning around 478 BCE after the Persian Wars. Member poleis supplied ships or money for continued defense against Persia.

Direct democracy

A system in which eligible citizens participate directly in political decisions. In Athens, male citizens debated and voted themselves rather than electing representatives to do so.

Golden Age of Athens

The fifth-century BCE period of major Athenian cultural achievements, especially under Pericles. Architecture and drama flourished while Athens also exercised imperial power and restricted political rights.

Helots

Unfree laborers who farmed land and sustained Spartan society, allowing Spartan citizens to focus heavily on military service.

Metics

Resident foreigners in Athens who were free but did not have the political rights of Athenian citizens, including the citizen vote.

Peloponnesian War

The conflict between alliances led by Athens and Sparta from 431 to 404 BCE. Disputes among allies and fear of growing Athenian power contributed to the war.

Pericles

An influential Athenian statesman in the mid-fifth century BCE. Public pay expanded participation for poorer male citizens, while Athens also grew wealthier and more powerful through its empire.

Philip II of Macedon

King of Macedon who defeated Athens and Thebes at Chaeronea in 338 BCE and established Macedonian control over the Greek city-states.

Sicilian Expedition

Athens's major campaign against Syracuse in Sicily from 415 to 413 BCE. The expedition ended disastrously and cost Athens many ships and soldiers.

Spartiates

Full Spartan citizens who trained for military service and held political power. Their military society depended heavily on helot labor.

Alexander the Great

King of Macedon who conquered the Persian Empire and helped create the conditions for the Hellenistic world.

Alexandria City

Alexander founded in Egypt. Its port and royal support made it a center of trade and scholarship.

Cultural blending

Combining or adapting features of different cultures. Serapis combined Egyptian religious roots with Greek imagery.

Cultural diffusion

The spread of ideas, languages, and practices between societies through contact, migration, and trade.

Hellenistic kingdoms

Monarchies formed after Alexander's commanders divided his empire. Major kingdoms ruled Egypt, West Asia, and Macedon.

Hellenistic period

Era from Alexander's death in 323 BCE to Rome's annexation of Egypt in 30 BCE. Greek and local traditions interacted.

Koine Greek

A common form of Greek that helped people communicate across regions in trade and government.

Macedon

Kingdom north of the main Greek city-states that Philip II and Alexander expanded.

Philip II

Alexander's father. He strengthened Macedon's army and brought most of Greece under Macedonian leadership.

Serapis

God whose worship combined Egyptian religious roots with Greek imagery, promoted by Egypt's Hellenistic rulers.

Assembly

A body of citizens that met to vote. Roman assemblies elected officials and voted on laws, but political influence was unequal.

Cannae

Battle in Italy in 216 BCE. Hannibal defeated a large Roman army, but Rome kept fighting.

Carthage

North African city founded by settlers from Tyre around 800 BCE. Trade, farming, and a navy supported its power.

Consul

One of two leading elected Roman officials. Consuls served one-year terms, led armies, and could check one another's actions.

Hannibal

Carthaginian commander who crossed the Alps into Italy in 218 BCE and tried to turn Rome's allies against it.

Patrician

A Roman citizen from a family with inherited aristocratic status. Patricians held important privileges in the early Republic.

Phoenicians

Peoples of eastern Mediterranean trading cities, including Tyre. They established settlements across the Mediterranean, including Carthage.

Plebeian

A Roman citizen outside the patrician group. Plebeians included both poor and wealthy people and demanded greater political rights.

Punic Wars

Three wars between Rome and Carthage: 264-241, 218-201, and 149-146 BCE. Rome won each and expanded its power.

Republic

A government run by public officials and citizen bodies rather than a hereditary king. Rome traditionally began its Republic in 509 BCE.

Senate

Rome's influential council of elite men, increasingly former officials. It guided finances, foreign affairs, and military policy.

Tribune of the plebs

An official elected by plebeians to defend their interests, including by vetoing certain official actions.

Twelve Tables

Roman laws publicly recorded around 450 BCE. Written rules made the law more accessible while preserving social inequality.

Veto

The power to block an official action. The Latin word means "I forbid."

Zama

A battle in North Africa in 202 BCE in which Roman forces and Numidian allies defeated Hannibal. The war ended in 201 BCE.