Unit 1: How do we make sense of the world around us?

7.1 Classical Conditioning: Learning by Associating StimuliLinks to an external site. 7.2 Operant Conditioning: Learning by Associating a Behavior with ConsequencesLinks to an external site. 7.3 Using the Principles of Learning to Understand Everyday BehaviorLinks to an external site. 7.4 Learning by Insight and ObservationLinks to an external site.

unconditioned response (UR)

a naturally occurring involuntary response that follows the unconditioned stimulus (e.g. saliva)

conditioned stimulus (CS)

a neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly presented prior to the unconditioned stimulus, begins to evoke a similar involuntary response as the unconditioned stimulus. (e.g. tone after being repeated presented)

phobia

a strong and irrational fear of a specific object, activity, or situation

conditioned response (CR)

an acquired involuntary response to the formerly neutral stimulus

spontaneous recovery

the increase in responding to the CS after a pause that follows extinction

discrimination

the tendency to respond to differently to stimuli that are similar but not identical

classical conditioning

learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces an involuntary response

generalization

the tendency to respond, but to a lesser extent, to stimuli that resemble the original CS

unconditioned stimulus (US)

something that triggers a naturally occurring involuntary response

second-order conditioning

a new neutral stimulus predicts an established CS causing an involuntary response

extinction

the reduction in responding that occurs when the CS is presented repeatedly without the US

fixed-interval schedule

A reinforcement schedule in which the reinforcement occurs for the first response made after a specific amount of time has passed.

shaping

The process of guiding an animal’s behavior to the desired outcome through the use of successive approximation to a final desired behavior.

continuous reinforcement schedule

A reinforcement schedule in which the desired response is reinforced every time it occurs.

variable-ratio schedule

A ratio reinforcement schedule in which the reinforcer is provided after an average number of responses.

Skinner box (operant chamber)

An enclosure that contains a bar or key that the animal (e.g., rat, pigeon) can manipulate to release food or water and a device to record the animal’s responses.

negative punishment

A behavior is weakened after the removal (subtraction) of something pleasant.

positive reinforcement

Behavior is strengthened after the presentation (addition) of something pleasant.

variable-interval schedule

An interval reinforcement schedule in which the timing of the reinforcer is varied around the average interval, making the actual appearance of the reinforcer unpredictable.

operant conditioning

Learning that occurs based on the consequences of a voluntary behavior.

reinforcement

Any event that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behavior.

fixed-ratio schedule

A reinforcement schedule in which behavior is reinforced after a specific number of responses.

negative reinforcement

Behavior is strengthened after the reduction or removal (subtraction) of something unpleasant.

secondary reinforcer

Neutral events that have become associated with a primary reinforcer through classical conditioning.

law of effect

The principle that responses that create a typically pleasant outcome in a particular situation are more likely to occur again in a similar situation, whereas responses that produce a typically unpleasant outcome are less likely to occur again in the situation.

punishment

Any event that weakens or decreases a behavior.

partial/intermittent reinforcement schedule

A reinforcement schedule in which the desired response is sometimes reinforced, and sometimes not.

primary reinforcer

Stimuli that are naturally preferred or enjoyed by the animal, such as food, water, and relief from pain.