Science - Atmosphere and Climate Unit Celebration

Volcanic Outgassing

Earth cooled and so less dense materials seep out onto Earth’s surface via volcanic outgassing. This forms an atmosphere rich in Carbon Dioxide and Nitrogen.

Cyanobacteria

RNA evolved into the first single-celled organisms (bacteria). The bacteria evolved into a cyanobacteria which was able to do photosynthesis, producing oxygen as a byproduct.

Differentiation

How different layers separate based on their density. The more dense a layer is the more it will sink.

Banded Iron Formations

When iron is exposed to rock, rust forms. This turns the rocks (iron inside) red. These indicate the presence in oxygen.

Red Beds

The rocks that existed during the Oxygen Catastrophe formed red beds and BIF’s, where some parts are much more red due to the increase in oxygen.

Troposphere

The lowest layer of earth’s atmosphere. It ends with the tropopause which is at roughly 10-12 KM. It is where our weather occurs. The temperature cools.

Stratosphere

The 2nd lowest layer of earth’s atmosphere. It ends with the stratopause at roughly 50 KM. The ozone layer is at roughly 20-25KM and is the home to most greenhouse gases. The temperature warms.

Mesosphere

The third lowest layer of earth’s atmosphere. It ends with the mesopause at roughly 85KM. It is home to sprites and shooting stars. Temperature cools.

Thermosphere

The fourth lowest layer of earth’s atmosphere. It ends with the thermopause at roughly 500-1000 (600) KM. This is where the Aurora lights show up.The temperature warms, and this is the hottest layer.

Exosphere

The fifth lowest layer of earth’s atmosphere. It fades into outer space, but also has the Carmen line (which is the boundary to outer space). The temperature warms or cools depending on which star (SS or NS). Particles are too far away so they can’t transfer energy, meaning that one would freeze to death.

Thermocline

A drastic change in temperature over a short period of time.

Low & High Pressure

Low pressure occurs with rising air and causes clouds. High pressure occurs with sinking air and causes clear skies. Air moves from areas of high pressure to low pressure since nature wants to balance out. Cyclones and hurricanes spin towards the right (or counter clockwise) in the NH and vice versa. The centers are centers of low pressure.

Heat (Q)

The total amount of energy of all particles that make up an object. For example a glacier has more heat than a boiling pot of water. It is measured in Joules using a colorimeter. Conduction.

Temperature (T)

A measurement of the average kinetic energy (the motion of each particle in an object). The temperature of the boiling water is higher than the glacier because the average is relatively high. Convection. It is measured in Kelvin/Celsius with a thermometer.

Nuclear Fusion (Nucleosynthesis)

Where elements collide and combine at high temperatures fusing together to form heavier elements. The process generates energy inside the sun.

Electromagnetic Radiation

Energy that travels in the form of waves through empty space, it travels at the speed of light. Shorter wavelengths have higher frequencies and higher energies. Longer wavelengths have lower frequencies and lower energies. Humans can see between 380 and 780 nanometers. It is produced by an electron absorbing energy, and then jumps from shells (lower to higher). When it jumps back down it produces a photon (light particle) which acts as both a particle and wave of EM radiation. Hotter an object is the higher amount of energy it will emit (closer to blue and purple).

Convection

It rises when heated, falls when cooled. Used with temperature.

Conduction

It flows from warmer objects to cooler objects, and is used with heat.

Radiation

Heat energy through empty space. The sun radiates solar radiation which has a higher frequency. The earth radiates terrestrial radiation (infrared radiation) which has a longer wavelength.

Greenhouse Gas

A gas that contributes to the greenhouse effect. Examples are carbon dioxide, water vapor, and methane.

Greenhouse Effect

30% of energy from the sun is reflected by earth out into space. Earth re-emits the rest back into space as infrared visible light energy. The greenhouse gasses send passes through the greenhouse gasses which send some of the gasses back to the earth.

Albedo

The reflectivity of the surface. Light ice has a much lower albedo than dark pavement.

Earth’s Energy Budget

The balance between energy received from the sun and energy radiated back into space, determining the planet's global temperature. Not all of the sun’s energy makes it to earth!

Positive Feedback Loop

A string of events where one leads to the next and the initial forcing is amplified. Example: Temperature increases, ice melts, earth’s albedo decreases, more of the sun’s energy is absorbed, temperature increases.

Negative Feedback Loop

A string of events where one triggers the next and the initial forcing is diminished. Example: Temperature increases, more air rises, increased cloud formation, albedo increases, earth reflects more energy, earth’s temperature decreases.

Geologic Time

This is the clock that started when Earth formed and it details geologic events and evolution.

Climate Proxy

Climate proxies are preserved physical characteristics of the past that stand in for direct measurements that enable scientists to reconstruct the climatic conditions that prevailed during much of the Earth’s history.

Tree Rings

These can be used to determine age. The thickness of the age can measure temperature and precipitation since thicker tree rings mean that the tree grew more so it had good climate conditions (Moderate rain, moderate temperature). Scars and burns can indicate past natural events such as fires, bugs can make holes. The tree rings go up to 9,000 years ago.

Ice Cores

Deep ice cores can be analyzed for trapped gases, stable isotopes ratios, and pollen trapped within the layers to infer past climate. Thinner layers were summer and thicker layers were winter (the layers are stacked). These go for up to 800,000 years ago.

Terrestrial Sediment Cores

These can indicate sedimentation rate through time. Trapped charcoal can indicate past fire events. Ripple marks and grain size can indicate direction and strength of wind or water of land when sediment was deposited. They can be used for up to 3.9 BYA. Microorganisms remains and pollen can indicate changes in past climate, since each species has a limited range of habitable conditions.

Weather Instruments

These devices are the best for determining climate, however they are not that useful for determining past climate and have not existed for that long, making them less useful.

Historical Data

This is the second best for determining climate, however they are not that useful for determining far past climate (we haven’t kept good climate records up until more recently).

Lake Sediments

Very similar to terrestrial sediment cores, but tell us more about the water which could be more impactful since water is a big part of climate control factors.

Coral Reefs

They have specific growing conditions (temperature and Salinity) and are heavily impacted by climate change.

Ocean Sediment Cores

Very similar to terrestrial sediment cores, but tell us the most about the water which could be more impactful since water is a big part of climate control factors.

Natural Climate Change

Changes in greenhouse gas concentration, changes in solar output, changes in the distribution of continents, changes in earth’s orbit.

Greenhouse Gas Concentration

The amount of greenhouse gasses impacts Earth’s temperature and earth’s energy budget. This includes some climate control factors.

Sunspot Cycles

11 year cycles of maximum to minimum peak points, and they can be related to warmer winters, reversal of the stratospheric wind pattern over the tropics, periods of more sunspots means more solar activity.

Plate Tectonics

Plate Tectonics can impact earth’s climate control factors, gyres, and latitudes. Plate tectonics and drift concentrated continents at higher altitudes allowed for more ice cover which increased albedo creating a positive feedback loop to cause more cooling.

Aerosols

A mix of microscopic particles (Volcanic events and hairspray) that floats around for a while and then settles on earth’s surface. They are related to volcanic winter.

Meteoric Impacts

THE KT EXTINCTION! The debris ejected aerosols, which led to blocking the sun (more). Less photosynthesis and cold blooded animals missed the sun so organisms having/needing this died off. Winged dinos and warm blooded animals were the survivors. The wind moved this debris around the earth.

KT Boundary

Is made up of iridium (rare metal) which comes from asteroids and is found everywhere in this layer of rock (very thin).

Mass Extinctions

See KT EXTINCTION.

Impact Winter

See KT EXTINCTION.

Milankovitch Cycles

Variations in earth’s (tilt, precession (wobble), and eccentricity) orbit causes climate to change throughout time. These cycles influence the seasons, and just the overall climate, such as ice age periods.

Eccentricity

How circular or elliptical earth’s orbit is. One cycle is 100,000 years and it has to do with gravitational interactions with other planets, mainly Jupiter. It changes the lengths of seasons. For instance if the orbit is more elliptical makes winter longer and vice versa for summer.

Obliquity (Tilt)

How far towards or far from the sun is earth’s North Pole pointed to. This gives us our seasons and the cycle is about 41,000 years. The tilt ranges from 22.5 degrees to 24.5 degrees. It affects the intensity of the seasons. For instance, if the tilt is closer to 22.5 degrees the seasons are more mild.

Precession

North Pole faces different directions. With eccentricity it changes the duration and where in the orbit seasons occur. The North Pole is pointed towards different north stars, such as Polaris and Vega. A full cycle takes about 26,000 years. It affects on its own when the seasons occur, based on if the pole is pointing towards the sun or away from it.

Seasons

Fall/Autumn, Winter, Spring, Summer. Determined by Earth’s precession, obliquity, and Eccentricity.

Aphelion

The point in Earth's orbit where it is farthest from the sun, occurring once a year. Stuff will generally be cooler since it is farther from the sun. IT DOES NOT GUARANTEE WINTER THOUGH!

Perihelion

The point in Earth’s orbit where it is closest to the sun, occurring once a year. Generally warmer since it is closer to the sun. Does not guarantee summer though!

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

One focai point has the sun, one has none. In a circle they overlap. The velocity of the orbit increases as the earth gets closer to the perihelion due to the pull of gravity. A line segment connecting Sol and the planet will sweep out equivalent areas in the same amount of time.

Greenhouse Phase

The phase where the greenhouse gasses (typically it started by an increase in them) and more volcanic out gassing, trap more heat, keeping the planet warm with no ice sheets. These phases can last for hundreds of thousands of years.

Icehouse Phase (Ice Age)

The phase where the planet’s global temperature cools, and there are more ice sheets. These phases alternate with greenhouse phases.

Interglacial Period

A warmer phase between ice ages which has retreating glaciers and ice sheets. Warmer temperatures.

Glacial Period

A colder phase between ice ages which has growing glaciers and ice sheets. Colder temperatures. These periods alternate with interglacial periods.

Advancing Glaciers

When more ice is being added to the glacier then being lost, making it bigger.

Retreating Glaciers

When more ice is being lost from the glacier than added, making it smaller.

Climate Control Factors

Conditions that determine the climate of an area, including but not limited to Latitude, Elevation (Altitude), Nearby Water, Ocean Currents, Topography, Prevailing Winds, Pressure Belts, Seasonal Shifts and Vegetation.

Latitude

It is generally colder towards the poles. Doesn’t really affect precipitation.

Elevation (Altitude)

Colder and dryer at higher elevations.

Nearby Water

Costal areas have more mild climates due to a higher SHC for the bodies of water. Also they have more precipitation since they are near water.

Ocean Currents (Warm vs. Cold)

Currents impact temperature of area based on the type of current. Warmer currents cause fog.

Topography (Rain Shadow Effect)

The leeward side is warmer than windward. Mountains are barriers to air masses. Windward side has more precipitation than leeward (Rain Shadow Effect). Air rises expands temp decreases compresses temperature increases warming the leeward side.

Prevailing (Global) Winds

If air masses come from hot or cold regions. If air masses come from a wet or dry region.

Vegetation

Affects albedo level based on the plant color. Releases water vapor into the air through transpiration.

Pressure Belts

Don’t really affect temperature. Low pressure belts have precipitation, high pressure belts have little precipitation.

Seasonal Shifts of Winds & Pressure

In the NH places warm towards July and cool towards January. In the SH places cool towards July and warm towards January. They shift pressure belts northward towards June and July, southward during Dec and Jan. India experiences monsoons because of this!

Precipitation

Total Precipitation, and it is distributed throughout the year.

Temperature

Average, and is a range (difference between the lowest and highest).

Terrestrial Biomes

Biomes are areas with similar temperature and precipitation throughout (the local climate).

Local Climate

An areas long-term pattern of weather (temperature and precipitation).

Global Climate

Earth’s long-term pattern of temperature and precipitation.

Tropical Rainforest

Near the equator, very warm/hot and very rainy/high precipitation.

Savanna (Tropical Grasslands)

In the tropics, very warm, moderate amount of rainfall. Rainy season, and regular fires.

Desert

Higher pressure belts, low rainfall (less than 25cm/yr), and can be any temperature (such as Antarctica).

Temperate Deciduous Forest

Mid-latitudes, dense hardwood forests. By warm ocean currents, high rainfall, and moderate temperatures. Where we live.

Temperate Grasslands (Steppe, Prairie)

Seasonal, moderate rainfall, wildfires periodically, range of temperatures seasonally. Cold and hot-ish.

Chaparral (Mediterranean)

Hot and dry, not much but more rain than a dessert. Wet and dry seasons, west coast. Mild wet winters, hot and dry summers. West coast = cold currents meeting high temperature landmasses.

Coniferous Forest (Taiga, Boreal Forest)

Coniferous trees, darker to absorb more energy. Swampy, moist forest. Long cold winters and brief summers. Northern latitudes/cold, enough rain for trees.

Tundra (Arctic Grasslands)

Above treeline and high mountain regions. Permafrost, and seasonal temperature but typically does not exceed 15 degrees Celsius. Low rainfall.

Polar / High Mountain / Ice (Alpine)

Alpine glaciers and high altitudes, soil bedrock, can be elevation dependent. Temperature does not exceed 0 degrees celsius monthly average.

Climatogram

Graph depicting the average monthly precipitation amount and the range of temperatures monthly (but an average line) for a biome/place.

Average Global Temperature

The average temperature of the earth. It is currently increasing.

The Big Three Graphs of Climate

Keeling curve, Law dome curve, and the Vostok Ice core data. These graphs represent historical carbon dioxide levels, temperature changes, and glaciation periods that illustrate climate change over time.

Keeling Curve

This graph reveals that carbon dioxide levels continue to build and the rate of increase is also increasing. Also it involves how in the spring/summer the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere decreases since more trees are there absorbing CO².

Law Dome Curve

This graph focuses on the last 1000 years with ice core data which demonstrates the rate of change. This graph with the others (Keeling and Vostok (Vostok least recent, Keeling most recent, Law Dome inbetween) demonstrates how there is a huge spike nowadays. The rate of change is nowhere near as high as it is today in the past.

Vostok Ice Core Data

This data is from the last 420,000 years, and takes samples from Antarctica, and they look at carbon dioxide levels/ past climate and atmospheric conditions.

Carbon Cycle

We heat up and mine fossil fuels (like coal) that are in the ground, and then bring them up to be used, where they are then put back into the atmosphere as greenhouse gases (since they were burned).

Photosynthesis

Some organisms (mainly plants) convert sunlight into energy for themselves.

Non-Renewable Resources

Are natural resources that do not regenerate fully in a humans life span.

Renewable Resources

Are natural resources that do regenerate fully in a humans life span.

Fossil Fuels

Energy sources such as coal and oil that come from decaying plants and animals (hence fossils) by the fossils being exposed to extreme heat and pressure in earth’s crust over millions of years. Since they are made with organic materials they have lots of carbon in them. They are non renewable.

Coal

Coal is a solid fossil fuel formed over millions of years by decay of land vegetation. The fossil layers are compacted and heated up over time turning them into coal. Could last about 114 years, and it is usually extracted in mines.

Peat

Low quality coal. Takes tens to thousands of years to form, AKA the shortest time.

Bituminous Coal

Mid quality coal. Takes about hundreds to tens of thousands years to form, AKA the second longest time.

Anthracite

High quality coal. Takes about millions of years to form, AKA the longest time.

Oil

Oil is a liquid fossil fuel that is formed from the remains of marine microorganisms deposited on the seafloor. After millions of years it is deposited in rock where oil finds the cracks before it is drilled out. It is expected to last 50 years.

Natural Gas (Methane)

Natural gas is a gaseous fossil fuel that is versatile, abundant and relatively clean compared to coal and oil. Like oil, it is formed from the remains of marine microorganisms. It contains mostly methane and hydrocarbons. It is expected to last 53 years.

Impacts of Climate Change on Health

More illness and fatalities/injuries due to heat, more disease and asthma due to more extreme weather, more allergens and polluted water due to rising sea levels, and more conflict/migration and malnutrition due to increasing CO² levels.