Data Collection and Bivariate Analysis

Informed Consent

Documented permission explaining study purpose, voluntary participation, withdrawal rights, and risks.

Confidentiality

Participant identities are known to researchers but protected from public exposure.

Anonymity

No identifying information is collected, so responses cannot be linked to individuals.

Data Auditing and Cleaning

Reviews raw data for missing entries, typographical errors, and out-of-range outliers.

APA 7 Table Formatting

Includes table number, italicized title, column headers, frequencies, percentages, and descriptive interpretation.

Bar Chart

Displays comparisons between discrete categorical groups.

Line Chart

Tracks continuous changes or longitudinal trends over time.

Bivariate Analysis

Evaluates differences or relationships between two variables.

Pearson Correlation Coefficient (r)

Measures the strength and direction of the linear association between two continuous variables.

Pearson's r Range

−1.00 to +1.00.

Independent-Samples t-Test

Tests differences between two independent groups.

Independent-Samples t-Test Degrees of Freedom

df = n₁ + n₂ − 2.

Single-Sample or Paired-Test Degrees of Freedom

df = N − 1.

Null Hypothesis (H₀)

States that no significant relationship or difference exists between the studied variables.

Level of Significance (α)

The benchmark risk threshold for statistical decisions; commonly 0.05 in social sciences.

Reject the Null Hypothesis

If the p-value is less than or equal to α (p ≤ 0.05), the finding is statistically significant.

Fail to Reject the Null Hypothesis

If the p-value is greater than α (p > 0.05), the finding is not statistically significant.