World History: Middle Ages, Age of Exploration, and the Tudor Dynasty

Comprehensive review flashcards covering European history, the Dark Ages, the Crusades, the Renaissance, early American migrations, the Age of Exploration, the Spanish Inquisition, Pre-Columbian civilizations, and the Tudor dynasty.

According to the lecture notes, what is the definition of culture and what role does religion play in it?

Culture is defined as a "way of life." Religion dictates language and influences everything else.

What major contributions did the Jews make according to the introductory notes?

Morals, monotheism, and the Tanakh/Torah.

What four major contributions did the ancient Greeks and Romans give to Western civilization?

Language, architecture, democracy, and philosophies (how to view life).

Why is the term "Dark Ages" considered Eurocentric, and which region experienced a Golden Age during this time?

It is Eurocentric because the lack of learning only characterized Europe; during this time, Spain experienced a Golden Age of learning (e.g., in Córdoba).

Under European feudalism during the Dark Ages, how were serfs controlled and prevented from revolting?

Serfs were bound to the land and kept in an intentional state of ignorance by the dominant Roman Catholic Church so they would not revolt.

When was Islam founded, and what European region became a key border territory of Islamic expansion?

Islam was created in $600\text{ CE}$ and rapidly spread to Andalusia (Spain), a border area connecting Afro-Asia.

Who initiated the Crusades, and what incentives were offered to those who fought?

Pope Urban II initiated the Christian army to retake Jerusalem from Muslim control, offering full forgiveness of sins to anyone who participated.

Where did Arab traders travel to obtain spices before Europeans sought direct trade routes?

They traveled overland and by sea to India and China.

Who was Marco Polo, and how did he influence European knowledge of Asia?

A Venetian merchant, explorer, and writer who traveled across Asia along the Silk Road between $1271$ and $1295$, recording his journeys in The Travels of Marco Polo.

What was the Renaissance, and in which fields did Europeans renew their focus?

The Renaissance marked the end of the Dark Ages through a "rebirth" of Greek and Roman knowledge, sparking education and interest in art, philosophy, literature, science, and history.

Why did Europeans historically refer to Africa as the "Dark Continent"?

Because Europeans knew almost nothing about its interior and feared rumors of monsters and cannibals.

What was Beringia, and what role did it play in the early human migration to the Americas?

A giant prehistoric ice bridge connecting Russia and Alaska that allowed ancient Asian populations to migrate into the Americas.

What is the archaeological significance of the Spirit Cave Mummy?

Found with $44$ distinct physical traits, the mummy showed strong Caucasoid features alongside traits that were $100\text{\%}$ Native American.

Which Viking explorers established early settlements in Greenland and Newfoundland?

Erik the Red founded settlements in Greenland in $986$, and his son Leif Erikson explored Newfoundland (Vinland) around $1001$.

What major political and religious shift occurred in Spain in 1492?

Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella completed the Reconquista by pushing out the Moors, expelled the Jews, and instituted the Spanish Inquisition.

What were the three distinct groups of Jews in Spain following the decrees of conversion?

1. Orthodox Jews (kept mitzvot openly and fled, or practiced cryptically)
2. Conversos / Marranos (practiced Crypto-Judaism in secret while pretending to be Christian)
3. New Christians (Jews who genuinely converted to Catholicism)

What was the primary objective of the Spanish Inquisition under Tomás de Torquemada?

To investigate Conversos suspected of secretly practicing Judaism and confiscate their wealth for the Crown.

What was an auto-da-fé during the Spanish Inquisition?

A public ceremony of penance and execution where convicted heretics were burned alive at the stake, or burned in effigy if absent.

What was the Alhambra Decree, and how did it affect Christopher Columbus's voyage?

The decree ordered the expulsion of all practicing Jews from Spain on August 2, 1492; Columbus delayed his departure by one day to August 3, 1492, to avoid the departing crowds.

What was Prince Henry the Navigator's major contribution to European exploration?

He established a school of navigation in Portugal to train sailors and develop technologies to discover an ocean route to Asia.

What were the "Three G's" that motivated Spanish exploration under Christopher Columbus?

Gold, God, and Glory.

Which three ships did Columbus sail on his 1492 voyage, and where did he first land?

The Niña, the Pinta, and the Santa María; he made landfall in the Bahamas at San Salvador.

What was the purpose and division of the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)?

Arbitrated by a Spanish Pope, it drew a longitudinal Line of Demarcation giving lands discovered west of the line to Spain and lands east of the line to Portugal.

Why is the American continent named after Amerigo Vespucci instead of Christopher Columbus?

Vespucci recognized that the landmass was a "New World" rather than Asia; German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller subsequently labeled it "America" on his world map.

What were the respective achievements of Juan Ponce de León and Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513?

Ponce de León explored and claimed Florida for Spain while searching for riches and the Fountain of Youth, while Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and claimed the Pacific Ocean for Spain.

What maritime milestone is credited to Ferdinand Magellan's expedition?

The first circumnavigation of the Earth, during which Magellan renamed the South Sea the "Pacific Ocean" due to its calm waters, though he died before the voyage concluded.

What were key characteristics and architectural achievements of the Maya civilization?

Located in Central America/Mexico, they built monumental stone temples/pyramids, developed an accurate calendar, invented a mathematical system using the concept of zero, and collapsed before European arrival.

What agricultural technique did the Aztecs use, and where was their capital city located?

They built chinampas (floating artificial gardens) in Central Mexico, centered around their capital city of Tenochtitlan.

How did Hernán Cortés conquer the Aztec Empire?

He received gifts of gold from Emperor Montezuma (who initially mistook him for the god Quetzalcoatl) and conquered the civilization using military force and devastating smallpox outbreaks.

How did Francisco Pizarro conquer the Inca Empire?

He lured the Inca emperor Atahualpa into a trap, captured and executed him, and conquered the empire to seize its vast reserves of silver and gold.

What was the encomienda system instituted by Spain in the Americas?

A labor system under which Spanish colonists were granted authority to force Native Americans to convert to Catholicism and work on agricultural plantations and in silver mines.

What is the definition of a colony?

A permanent settlement outside a mother country's borders that is directly ruled and governed by that mother country.

What is mercantilism, and how did it establish Spain as a global superpower between 1500 and 1600?

An economic doctrine holding that a mother country must export more than it imports and accumulate bullion; vast inflows of silver and gold from the Americas made Spain Europe's preeminent superpower.

What was the Northwest Passage, and which French explorer claimed Canadian territory searching for it?

A coveted direct sea route through North America to India and China; Jacques Cartier explored the St. Lawrence River and claimed Canada for France, establishing a lucrative fur trade.

Who were the Huguenots, and what royal decree granted them religious freedom in France?

French Calvinists/Protestants who faced persecution until King Henry IV issued the Edict of Nantes, granting them religious liberty.

Why did King Henry VIII break away from the Roman Catholic Church?

Pope Clement VII refused to annul his $20$-year marriage to Catherine of Aragon (who had produced only a surviving daughter, Mary), leading Henry to declare himself head of the Church of England.

How did the Anglican Church differ from the Roman Catholic Church under Henry VIII?

It replaced the Pope with the English monarch as supreme head and permitted divorce, while retaining much of Catholic ritual and adopting Protestant doctrine.

What was Queen Mary I's religious agenda, and why was she nicknamed "Bloody Mary"?

A staunch Catholic, she attempted to reverse the Reformation in England and executed hundreds of Protestants during her reign.

How did Queen Elizabeth I defeat the Spanish Armada in 1588?

English naval forces deployed burning fireships into the Spanish fleet, disrupting their formations and securing a decisive victory.

What role did privateers like Sir Francis Drake play under Queen Elizabeth I?

They were state-authorized pirates commissioned by the Crown to raid and plunder Spanish treasure ships carrying silver and gold from the Americas.

Which Portuguese explorer first rounded the southern tip of Africa?

Bartolomeu Dias, who sailed around the Cape of Good Hope into the Indian Ocean before dying in a later shipwreck.