3: Instrumental Conditioning

Instrumental conditioning

Learning in which behaviour changes according to its consequences.

Thorndike's law of effect

Behaviours followed by satisfying consequences become more likely, while behaviours followed by unsatisfying consequences become less likely.

Skinner box

An experimental chamber used to study how consequences affect behaviour.

Reinforcement

A consequence that increases the likelihood of a behaviour.

Positive reinforcement

Adding a desirable consequence to increase a behaviour.

Negative reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant condition to increase a behaviour.

Positive punishment

Adding an unpleasant consequence to decrease a behaviour.

Negative punishment

Removing a desirable consequence to decrease a behaviour.

Omission training

Reducing behaviour by withholding an expected reward when the behaviour occurs.

Escape training

Performing a behaviour to terminate an unpleasant stimulus.

Avoidance training

Performing a behaviour to prevent an unpleasant stimulus from occurring.

Shaping

Reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behaviour.

Chaining

Linking individual behaviours into a sequence.

Autoshaping

The development of a response toward a stimulus that predicts reinforcement, without the response necessarily being required for the reward.

Superstitious behaviour

Behaviour that persists because a consequence happens to follow it, even without a genuine causal relationship.

Discriminative stimulus (SD)

A stimulus indicating that a particular behaviour is likely to be reinforced.

S+

A stimulus that signals reinforcement is available for a particular response.

S-delta

A stimulus that signals reinforcement is unavailable for a particular response.

Generalization in instrumental conditioning

Responding similarly to stimuli that resemble the original discriminative stimulus.

Continuous reinforcement (CRF)

Reinforcement after every occurrence of the target behaviour.

Partial reinforcement

Reinforcement after only some occurrences of the target behaviour.

Fixed-ratio schedule (FR)

Reinforcement after a set number of responses.

Variable-ratio schedule (VR)

Reinforcement after a varying number of responses.

Fixed-interval schedule (FI)

Reinforcement becomes available after a set amount of time has passed.

Variable-interval schedule (VI)

Reinforcement becomes available after varying amounts of time have passed.

Cumulative response graph

A graph showing the total number of responses over time.

Ratio strain

A decline or disruption in responding when the response requirement becomes too demanding.

Break point

The point at which an individual stops responding because the effort required for reinforcement is too high.

Extinction resistance

The persistence of a behaviour after reinforcement stops.

Primary reinforcer

A reinforcer that satisfies a biological need or is naturally rewarding.

Secondary reinforcer

A previously neutral stimulus that becomes reinforcing through association with other reinforcers.

Contrast effect

A change in responding caused by a difference between the current reward and a previously experienced reward.

Overjustification effect

A reduction in intrinsic motivation when an activity that was already enjoyable becomes associated with external rewards.

Observational learning

Learning by watching other people's behaviour and its consequences.

Mirror neurons

Neurons that respond during certain actions and when observing similar actions performed by others.

Watson's behaviourism

An approach emphasizing observable behaviour and environmental influences rather than unobservable mental processes.

Classical vs. instrumental generalization

Classical conditioning generalizes across similar CSs; instrumental conditioning generalizes across similar discriminative stimuli.