Ap cogo

2.1 What defines a parliamentary system?

Executive and legislative functions are fused; legislature selects and can remove the PM/cabinet.

2.1 What defines a presidential system?

President and legislature are separately elected for fixed terms; president is head of state and government.

2.1 What defines a semi-presidential system?

President and legislature are separately elected; president nominates a PM who needs legislative approval.

2.1 Which countries fit the three main system types?

UK parliamentary; Mexico/Nigeria presidential; Russia semi-presidential.

2.1 Why do China and Iran not fit neatly into the three-system model?

China is a communist party-state; Iran is a theocratic republic.

2.1 UK executive structure

King = ceremonial head of state; PM = head of government.

2.1 Russia executive structure

President = head of state; PM = head of government and needs Duma approval.

2.1 Mexico executive structure

President is both head of state and head of government.

2.1 China executive structure

Xi is president, CCP leader, and CMC chair; premier = head of government; real power sits in the PBSC.

2.1 Iran executive structure

Supreme Leader outranks president; elected institutions operate under the Leader and Guardian Council.

2.2 Parliamentary vs. presidential policymaking

Parliamentary systems usually have fewer institutional obstacles; presidential systems divide power among branches.

2.2 How can parliaments check executives?

Question/censure ministers, reject executive bills, and impose limits on calling new elections.

2.2 Why can presidential/semi-presidential legislatures reject executives more often?

Power is divided among branches, so legislatures can alter or reject executive proposals.

2.2 What can weaken formal checks in China, Russia, and Iran?

Party control or unelected institutions can weaken formal checks in practice.

2.2 UK formal checks on executive

PMQs, no-confidence votes, defeating government bills; Lords delay: 1 month money bills, 1 year most others.

2.2 Mexico formal checks on executive

Bicameral Congress; amendments need 2/3 of each chamber plus 17 of 32 state legislatures.

2.2 Russia formal checks on executive

Duma approves PM, deputy PMs, and most ministers; president may dissolve Duma after 3 rejected PM nominees.

2.2 Nigeria formal checks on executive

Senate confirms ministers/judges; National Assembly can override veto by 2/3 of both chambers.

2.2 China formal checks on executive

NPC formally approves government work report, budget, and plans; Standing Committee acts between sessions.

2.2 Iran formal checks on executive

Majles can question/impeach ministers; Guardian Council can veto Majles laws.

2.3 What do executive institutions do?

Chief executives and cabinets formulate, implement, and enforce policy through agencies.

2.3 Why do executive titles and roles matter?

Head of state, head of government, and commander-in-chief roles vary across countries.

2.3 What does leadership change reveal?

Election, party decision, succession, or closed selection shows where real power lies.

2.3 UK: how is the chief executive selected?

Monarch by succession; PM = Commons-majority party/coalition leader, formally appointed by King.

2.3 UK: main PM powers

Leads cabinet, foreign-policy agenda, civil service; de facto commander in chief; can seek early election.

2.3 Russia: how are president and PM selected?

President directly elected for 6 years; PM nominated by president and approved by Duma.

2.3 Russia: main executive powers

President commands military, oversees power ministries, nominates judges, can dissolve Duma; PM runs civil service.

2.3 China: how are president and premier selected?

CCP leaders decide; NPC formally elects president and approves president's premier nominee.

2.3 China: main executive structure

Xi holds General Secretary, President, and CMC chair; premier leads State Council and civil service.

2.3 Iran: how are Supreme Leader and president selected?

Assembly of Experts chooses Supreme Leader; president directly elected for 4-year terms.

2.3 Iran: main Supreme Leader powers

Commander in chief; appoints chief justice, half Guardian Council, top military/media officials; president governs under Leader.

2.3 Mexico: how is president selected?

Direct plurality election on a fixed date for one 6-year term.

2.3 Mexico: main presidential powers

Head of state/government, commander in chief, appoints cabinet; some posts need Senate approval; leads foreign policy/bureaucracy.

2.3 Nigeria: how is president selected?

Direct election for 4 years; plurality plus at least 25% in 24 of 36 states.

2.3 Nigeria: main presidential powers

Head of state/government and commander in chief; ministers need Senate confirmation; leads civil service.

2.4 Main advantages of executive term limits

Check executive power, inhibit dictatorship/personality rule, encourage turnover and new ideas.

2.4 Main disadvantages of executive term limits

Can force good leaders out, reduce continuity/experience, create lame ducks, and weaken accountability.

2.4 Why does changing term limits matter?

Who changes the limits and by what process reveals institutional strength.

2.4 UK term-limit rules

No formal PM term limit; monarch serves for life.

2.4 Russia term-limit rules

Two 6-year presidential terms; 2020 amendments reset Putin's prior term count.

2.4 China term-limit rules

Presidential two-term limit removed in 2018; premier limited to two terms.

2.4 Iran term-limit rules

Supreme Leader has conditional life tenure; president max two consecutive 4-year terms.

2.4 Mexico term-limit rules

President: one 6-year sexenio, no reelection; deputies max four 3-year terms; senators max two 6-year terms.

2.4 Nigeria term-limit rules

President and governors may serve two 4-year terms.

2.5 Why do removal procedures exist?

Other institutions can remove executives to control abuse of power.

2.5 Main executive-removal mechanisms

No-confidence, impeachment, recall, party removal, and removal by religious/party bodies.

2.5 What does actual use of removal power reveal?

How often it is used indicates how independent the removing institution is.

2.5 UK executive removal

Monarch leaves by death/abdication; PM by no-confidence, party ouster, or election loss.

2.5 Russia executive removal

Impeachment needs Duma charge, court findings, and Federation Council vote at high thresholds.

2.5 China executive removal

NPC formally can remove president; in practice the CCP removes leaders.

2.5 Iran executive removal

Assembly of Experts can dismiss Supreme Leader; Majles can impeach president.

2.5 Mexico executive removal

President may be charged for treason/serious crimes; recall referendum available since 2019.

2.5 Nigeria executive removal

Gross misconduct: 1/3 starts process, panel of 7 investigates, 2/3 of both chambers remove.

2.6 Unicameral vs. bicameral course countries

China/Iran unicameral; UK/Russia/Mexico/Nigeria bicameral.

2.6 Main electoral-system types

FPTP single-member districts, party-list PR, and mixed/parallel systems.

2.6 Main legislative functions

Make laws, approve budgets, confirm appointments, check executive, represent constituents.

2.6 UK legislature: structure/powers

Bicameral; Commons passes laws/removes PM; Lords reviews/amends and can only delay.

2.6 UK legislature: selection/size

Commons 650 FPTP single-member districts; Lords about 800 life peers and bishops.

2.6 Russia legislature: structure/powers

Duma passes laws/confirms PM; Federation Council handles budget laws, treaties, judges, troop deployment.

2.6 Russia legislature: selection/size

Duma 450: 225 FPTP + 225 party-list with 5% threshold; Federation Council appointed.

2.6 China legislature: structure/powers

Unicameral NPC elects president, approves premier, legitimizes policy; Standing Committee does most work.

2.6 China legislature: selection/size

About 2,977 deputies, 5-year terms, indirectly elected through regional assemblies.

2.6 Iran legislature: structure/powers

Unicameral Majles passes laws, oversees budget, confirms cabinet under Guardian Council supervision.

2.6 Iran legislature: selection/size

290 seats, 4-year terms, mixed multi-member/single-member districts; 5 minority seats.

2.6 Mexico legislature: structure/powers

Bicameral/nearly co-equal; Chamber handles laws, taxes, elections; Senate handles appointments, treaties, federal intervention.

2.6 Mexico legislature: selection/size

Chamber 500: 300 SMD + 200 PR; Senate 128: 96 from states + 32 national list.

2.6 Nigeria legislature: structure/powers

Bicameral and co-equal on legislation; Senate also has confirmation and impeachment roles.

2.6 Nigeria legislature: selection/size

Senate 109: 3 per state + 1 FCT; House 360 single-member districts.

2.7 What can constrain legislative independence?

Party bodies, councils, courts, executives, candidate vetting, decrees, and party discipline.

2.7 How can independent legislatures reinforce legitimacy?

Respond to demand, debate, compromise, protect liberties, and restrain executive.

2.7 UK key legislative constraints

Party whips/executive dominance, Lords delay; courts can require Parliament's approval but cannot strike down Acts.

2.7 Russia key legislative constraints

Kremlin-aligned majority, candidate exclusion, and presidential decrees.

2.7 China key legislative constraints

CCP Politburo Standing Committee = real power center; NPC Standing Committee sets agenda/interprets laws.

2.7 Iran key legislative constraints

Guardian Council vets candidates/reviews laws; Expediency Council settles disputes; Supreme Leader above both.

2.7 Mexico key legislative constraints

Presidential decrees, coalition discipline, courts; constitutional amendments shielded from judicial review.

2.7 Nigeria key legislative constraints

Presidential assent/veto, courts, state governors; veto override requires 2/3.

2.8 What do judiciaries do and how do they differ?

Interpret/apply law, resolve disputes; differ in appointment, legal tradition, and judicial review.

2.8 Rule of law vs. rule by law

Rule of law binds everyone including leaders; rule by law uses law as a state tool of control.

2.8 UK judiciary: structure/appointment

Common law; 12-justice Supreme Court; independent commission selects, PM/King complete process.

2.8 UK judiciary: functions/powers

Final appeals, rights/devolution cases; reviews executive action, cannot strike Acts, may declare incompatibility.

2.8 Russia judiciary: structure/appointment

Judges nominated by president and approved by Federation Council.

2.8 Russia judiciary: functions/powers

Judicial review exists on paper, but courts have not limited governing branches and are used against opposition.

2.8 China judiciary: structure/appointment

Rule by law; CCP controls most judicial appointments; Supreme People's Court at top.

2.8 China judiciary: functions/powers

Courts enforce Party policy; no judicial review.

2.8 Iran judiciary: structure/appointment

Chief justice appointed by Supreme Leader; chief justice nominates 6 jurists for Guardian Council.

2.8 Iran judiciary: functions/powers

Judges trained in Islamic law; civil courts handle ordinary crimes; Revolutionary Courts handle national-security cases.

2.8 Mexico judiciary: structure/appointment

Supreme Court has 9 justices elected by popular vote; disciplinary tribunal replaced Federal Judiciary Council.

2.8 Mexico judiciary: functions/powers

Judicial review including amparo, but constitutional amendments cannot be reviewed.

2.8 Nigeria judiciary: structure/appointment

Common law + Sharia in some north; NJC recommends, president nominates, Senate confirms Supreme Court judges.

2.8 Nigeria judiciary: functions/powers

Judicial review and final appeals; Chief Justice retires at age 70.

2.9 Five factors of judicial independence

Authority/judicial review, selection, term length, qualifications, and removal.

2.9 Why independent judiciaries matter

Checks and balances, rights/liberties, rule of law, separation of powers, and legitimacy.