Chapter 6: Infancy Socioemotional Development

Primary emotions

Distinct basic emotions, biologically based, universal, and appear within the first 6 months

Self-conscious emotions

Require self-awareness and begin about 18 months of age: embarrassment, jealousy, pride, shame, guilt, and empathy

How do infants’ emotional expressions affect their social relationships?

• Infants’ emotional expressions affect social relationships by helping them communicate their needs and emotions to caregivers, which allows caregivers to respond appropriately. 

• When infants and caregivers respond to each other’s emotional expressions, their interactions become reciprocal and synchronous, helping build a strong emotional bond. 

• Sensitive and responsive caregiving can also support infants’ emotional development, while positive, coordinated interactions can strengthen the relationship between infants and their caregivers.

Three types of temperament

Easy, Difficult, and Slow-to-warm-up

Easy Temperament

Typically in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, and adapts easily to new experiences

Difficult Temperment

Reacts negatively and cries frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept change

Slow-to-warm-up Temperament

Low activity level, is somewhat agreeable, and displays a low intensity of mood

How does temperament develop from nature and nurture?

• Nature: Genetics and biology give children tendencies toward certain temperaments (e.g., fearfulness or inhibition).

• Nurture: Parenting, experiences, and culture shape how these traits are expressed and can help children modify them.

Emerging sense of self

The gradual realization that you are a unique individual separate from the world and other people around you

What is the mirror test?

Infants are given a mark on their nose and placed in front of a mirror. Touching the mark suggests self-recognition.

When does self-recognition develop?

Self-recognition begins around 15–18 months and is common by age 2.

What are some other signs that toddlers have developed a sense of “me”?

Saying things like “me big,” naming their emotions, wanting to do things themselves, and claiming objects as “mine.”

What is attachment?

A close emotional bond between two people

What did Harlow’s experiment reveal about attachment?

• Harlow found that attachment is based on more than feeding

• Infant monkeys preferred a soft cloth mother for comfort, even when the wire monkey provided food

• Contact, comfort, and security are important for forming attachment

Internal working model

• A mental model of the caregiver, the relationship, and the self as deserving of care.

• It influences how children respond to and form relationships with others later in life

What does the Still Face Experiment reveal about infant needs and attachment?

Infants are biologically hardwired for active emotional connection and rely heavily on caregiver responsiveness for emotional regulation and trust

What are the four types of infant attachment styles?

Secure, Insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant, insecure-disorganized

Secure

Uses caregiver as a secure base, explores freely, and is comforted when caregiver returns.

Insecure-avoidant

Avoids or shows little interaction with the caregiver and may not seek comfort

Insecure-resistant

Clings to caregiver but also resists comfort; often very upset when caregiver leaves

Insecure-disorganized

Shows confused, fearful, or disoriented behavior toward the caregiver.

Factors that influence attachment

• Caregiving: Sensitive, responsive, and consistent caregiving promotes secure attachment.

• Caregiver availability: Unresponsive, rejecting, inconsistent, neglectful, or abusive caregiving can contribute to insecure attachment.

• Infant characteristics: Genetics and temperament can influence attachment.

• Environment: Family relationships, stress, and other social experiences can affect attachment.

• Culture: Different cultures have different caregiving practices and socializing agents, which can shape attachment.