psych 2621 midterm 2 chapter 8

what are the general characteristics of mood disorders?

severe emotional disturbances that affect daily functioning, including depression or mania

what are three types of depression symptoms?

mood, cognitive and somatic disturbances

what are examples of mood disturbances in depression?

sadness, guilt, worthlessness, withdrawal, hopelessness and low motivation

what does cognitive disturbance mean in depression?

changes in thinking, attention, decision making and self perception

what are cognitive symptoms of depression?

self-blame, indecisiveness, slow thinking, poor concentration and suicidal thoughts

what does somatic disturbance mean?

psychical symptoms that affect the body, sleep, appetite and energy

what are somatic symptoms of depression?

sleep problems, appetite changes, fatigue, low sexual desire and loss of interest

what is mania?

an intense, unusually elevated or irritable mood with increased energy and activity

what are common symptoms of mania?

rapid speech, racing thoughts, little sleep, inflated self-esteem, distractibility and risky plans

what are the DSM-5 requirements for major depressive disorder?

at least 5 symptoms for 2 weeks. depressed mood or loss of interest must be one

what is the difference between bipolar I and bipolar II?

bipolar I includes full mania. bipolar II includes hypomania and major depressive episodes

what is postpartum depression?

depression experienced by some mothers after childbirth. rick factors include low support and previous depression

how are mood disorders different from normal emotional states?

they are much more serious and serve than typical emotions

what psychological problems are associated with mood disorders?

panic attacks, substance abuse, sexual dysfunction and personality disorders

why can depression symptoms differ between cultures?

cultures can influence how people experience and express depression

what type of depression symptoms are common signs early in children?

somatic symptoms or physical complaints

what is flight of ideas?

rapidly shifting from one idea or topic to another

what is grandiosity during mania?

an inflated sense of self importance and unrealistic plans

what are the 9 symptoms of major depressive disorder?

depressed mood, loss of interest, sleep changes, activity changes, appetite changes, fatigue, worthlessness, poor concentration and thoughts of death

how does MDD prevalence differ between men and women?

MDD is approximately twice as common in women

when does the gender difference in MDD first appear?

during adolescence, and continues across the lifespan

what is a mixed episode in bipolar I disorder?

an episode involving symptoms of both mania and depression

what is required for manic episode diagnosis?

elevated or irritable mood, increased activity and 3 additional symptoms. or 4 if irritable

what activity changes occur during a manic episode?

increased goal directed activity at work, socially or sexually

what is the average age of onset for bipolar disorder?

20’s

how does bipolar differ between men and women?

it occurs equally. women experience more depression, men experience more mania

how often does bipolar disorder recur?

more than 50% experience recurrence within 12 months

what can severe manic episodes lead to?

violent behaviours, including child or spousal abuse

what happens to insight during bipolar disorder?

people often lose insight into their condition and may resist treatment

which disorders commonly occur alongside bipolar disorder?

anxiety disorders and personality disorders

what does heterogeneity mean is mood disorders?

people with the same diagnosis can experience very different symptoms

what is hypomania?

a less extreme form of mania

when can manic of depressive episodes occur during pregnancy?

during pregnancy or within 4 weeks after childbirth

What is the psychoanalytic theory of depression?

Depression develops from unconscious conflicts and experiences that begin in early childhood.

According to Freud, what is depression compared to?

Bereavement, or the loss of a loved one.

What does it mean to introject a lost loved one?

To unconsciously take on or internalize the characteristics of someone who has been lost.

According to Freud, why does anger turn inward in depression?

The person feels anger toward the lost loved one but directs that anger toward themselves.

What does a person with depression potentially feel after a loss?

Resentment, abandonment, and inward-directed anger.

What are dependency traits?

Personality traits involving a strong need for support, approval, and emotional connection from others.

According to Canadian Perspectives 8.2, who may be more prone to depression following loss?

Individuals who show high dependency traits.

When can the potential for depression develop according to psychoanalytic theory?

During early childhood.

What is Beck's theory of depression?

Depression develops when a person's thinking becomes biased toward negative interpretations.

What is the negative triad?

Three negative views:

The self, The world, The future.

What is a negative schema?

A negative thought pattern or belief about yourself, the world, or the future.

What can trigger negative schemas?

Negative life events that activate negative beliefs.

What are cognitive biases?

Errors in thinking that cause people to interpret situations negatively.

What is arbitrary inference?

Jumping to a negative conclusion without enough evidence.

What is selective abstraction?

Focusing on one negative detail while ignoring the positive parts of a situation.

What is overgeneralization?

Taking one negative experience and assuming it will always happen.

What is magnification?

Making a negative situation seem much worse than it actually is.

What is minimization?

Making positive experiences or accomplishments seem less important than they are.

How do negative schemas and cognitive biases contribute to depression?

Negative schemas influence how people interpret events. Cognitive biases reinforce negative thinking, which can contribute to depression.

what is learned helplessness?

Believing you cannot control your life because of past negative experiences.

how does learned helplessness explain depression?

a person may become passive, lose motivation, and feel unable to control their life after repeated experiences where their efforts did not improve their circumstances

what causes learned helplessness?

Repeated unpleasant experiences or trauma that a person cannot control.

What is attribution theory?

how people explain the causes of events and behaviours

what is the depressive paradox?

Depressed people may make more realistic judgments than non-depressed people.

What are global attributions?

Believing one negative event affects every area of your life.

What are stable attributions?

Believing a negative situation will continue over time.

What are internal attributions?

Blaming yourself or your personal characteristics for negative events.

what is the depressive attributional style?

a pattern of explaining negative events through causes that are global, stable and internal. this thinking style can increase vulnerability to depression

What is hopelessness theory?

Expecting negative outcomes and believing you cannot change the situation.

What is the interpersonal theory of depression?

Limited social support and poor social skills can increase depression risk.

how cam limited social networks increase the risk of depression?

people with small social networks may have less emotional support and fewer resources to help them manage stressful life events. this can increase their vulnerability to depression

How can negative reactions from others affect depression?

They can increase vulnerability and contribute to depression.

How can reassurance-seeking affect relationships?

Constantly seeking reassurance can strain relationships.

How can life stress affect bipolar disorder?

stressful events can trigger mood episodes

What is one possible protective function of manic states?

Mania may help protect against or cope with difficult experiences.

how can depression affect relationships?

depression can cause people to withdraw from others, have difficulties with social skills, seek constant reassurance and elicit negative reactions from others

what role does life stress play in bipolar disorder?

life stress can trigger manic or depressive episodes in people with bipolar disorder

what is one possible psychological explanation for manic states?

manic states may serve a protective function for some individuals

what do genetic studies suggest about bipolar disorder?

bipolar has a strong genetic component. research involving twins, adoption studies and genetic linkage supports the role of heredity

what is a concordance rate?

the percentage of pairs of relatives, often twins, who both show the same disorder or characteristics

what did adoption studies suggest about bipolar disorder?

found evidence of a strong heritable component. this suggests that genetics can contribute to the development of bipolar disorder

what chromosome has been linked to bipolar disorder In research?

the 11th chromosome

what is BDNF?

brain-derived neurotrophic factor. another gene implicated with bipolar disorder

what do genetic studies suggest about major depressive disorder?

MDD has a hereditary component. people with relatives who have unipolar depression face an increased risk of developing unipolar depression themselves

what is the 5-HTTLPR gene?

a serotonin transporter gene-linked promoter region. researchers have considered its role in depression and gene-environment interactions

what is a gene-environment interaction?

it describes how genetic factors and environmental experiences can work together to influence the likelihood of developing a disorder

how does the neurochemical theory explain depression and mania?

suggests lower levels of norepinephrine and dopamine are associated with depression and higher level are associated with mania

what is the serotonin theory?

suggest that serotonin, which helps regulate norepinephrine, plays a role in both depression and mania

what are tricyclic antidepressants?

medications that prevent the reuptake of certain neurotransmitters, including norepinephrine, serotonin, and/or dopamine, by the presynaptic neuron

what are MAOIs?

monoamine oxidase inhibitors are medications that prevent the enzyme monoamine oxidase from breaking down neurotransmitters

what are SSRIs?

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are medications that block the reuptake of serotonin. this allows more serotonin to remain available in the synapse

what are the difference between tricyclic antidepressants, MAOIs, and SSRIs?

1. tricyclics: prevent the reuptake of several neurotransmitters

2. MAOIs: prevent the breakdown of neurotransmitters by the MAO enzyme

3. SSRIs: specifically inhibit serotonin reuptake

how might antidepressants and mood stabilizers work though receptors?

they may change the sensitivity of neurotransmitter receptors. receptors may be too insensitive in people with depression and too sensitive in people with mania

which brain structures are important in neuroimaging studies of mood disorders?

1. amygdala

2. hippocampus

3. prefrontal lobe

4. anterior cingulate

what brain changes have been associated with mood disorders?

decreased hippocampal volume and neurocognitive impairment

what is MAO-A?

an enzyme involved in breaking down neurotransmitters. MOA-A levels are increased during untreated depression and were also found in postpartum women during the period associated with the baby blues

what is the neuroendocrine system?

involved communication between the brain and endocrine glands, which release hormones into the body

how can the HPA axis relate to depression?

the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis is involved in the body’s stress response. is a possible contributor to depression and report increased cortisol levels in depressed patients

what is cortisol?

a hormone involved in the body’s stress response

how can the thyroid relate to bipolar disorder?

thyroid function problems are often seen in people with bipolar disorder. thyroid hormones can also induce mania

what is the right hemisphere dysfunction associated with?

it is associated with a sense of indifference or emotional flatness

what are psychodynamic therapies?

therapies that explore unconscious conflicts and emotional experiences. for depression, they may focus on repressed feelings of loss and anger that have been turned inward

what do psychodynamic therapies try to help a person achieve?

insight to unconscious feelings and conflicts. encourages the person to recognize and expression emotions rather than keeping them repressed

how effective can short-term psychodynamic supportive therapy be?

found short term psychodynamic supportive therapy to be as effective as antidepressants for mild major depressive disorder

what are cognitive and behavioural therapies?

therapies that help people identify and change unhelpful thoughts and behaviours that contribute to depression

what do cognitive therapists help clients change?

their interpretations of events and their beliefs about themselves

what factors can make cognitive and behavioural therapies less effective?

1. high levels of dysfunctional attitudes

2. severe depression

3. chronic depression

4. many pervious depressive episodes

5. earlier age of onset

6. high levels of neuroticism