Cogs 9B Unit 1: Learning Pt. 2

reinforcement

refers to an increased likelihood of a behavior being repeated

punishment

refers to a decreased likelihood of a behavior being repeated

primary reinforcers

consequences that are innately pleasurable regardless of experience, as they satisfy some sort of biological need related to survival (e.g. food, water, warmth, sex, etc.)

secondary reinforcers

consequences that are learned pleasures acquired through experience, because of an association learned with primary reinforcers (e.g. money)

why are secondary reinforcers often more powerful than primary ones

often are at a higher price/value, or infinitely desirable/desirable in infinite amounts

positive reinforcement

frequency of behavior increases due to it being followed by the addition of pleasant stimuli

negative reinforcement

frequency of behavior increases due to the removal of unpleasant stimuli

positive punishment

frequency of behavior decreases due to the addition of unpleasant stimuli

negative punishment

frequency of behavior decreases due to the removal of pleasant stimuli

premack principle

preferred activities/activities one more actively engages in, can be harnessed to reinforce unpreferred activities one is less inclined to do (e.g. doing homework first, to be allowed to play video games)

delay discounting

the tendency to downplay the importance of extended/delayed consequences and thus lead to impulsive choices (e.g. smoking, and eventually getting lung cancer)

skinner box

operant chamber that allowed researchers to have full control over experiments/studies; allowed for classical/operant conditioning in humans and non-humans, as well as free operant responses

free-operant responses

subjects/participants in skinner boxes are generally allowed to respond whenever they want, as many times as needed, without intervention

shaping

gradually changing random behaviors into a desired target behavior via reinforcement of successive approximations

reinforcement of successive approximations

main idea behind shaping; starting with simple behaviors vaguely similar to target behavior, building in complexity until target behavior is reached

clicker training

form of shaping in which a click (secondary reinforcer) or sound is played whenever something initiates a behavior related to target behavior, gets a treat (primary reinforcer) for it, then repeats until target behavior is learned/achieved; useful for when trainer is too far away to give a treat (lets trainee know reward is coming), and letting trainee know what is being rewarded and what isn’t

instinctive drift

an animal’s reversion to evolutionarily derived instinctive behaviors, instead of demonstrating newly learned responses

continuous reinforcement schedule

a behavior is rewarded every time it is performed; leads to rapid acquisition, but rapid extinction of behavior

partial reinforcement schedules

behavior is only rewarded some of the time; often more effective than continuous reinforcement schedules

ratio schedule

type of partial reinforcement schedule in which the amount/frequency of behavior determines when a reward is given

interval schedule

type of partial reinforcement schedule in which a reward is only given based on the amount of time that has passed when a reward is given

fixed schedules

denotes that a behavior is reinforced after a set amount of responses, or after a set amount of time

variable schedules

denotes that a behavior is reinforced randomly or unpredictably, often at an average but variable number of responses or amount of time

fixed-ratio schedule

requires a specific amount of behaviors before reward is given; behaviors start slow but speed up when closer to reward-thresholds

variable-ratio schedule

reinforces an average amount of behaviors before reward is given; effective for eliciting consistently high levels of a behavior

fixed-interval schedule

reinforcement is given for a behavior made after a fixed-amount of time; often a drop-off in behavior after reward, but increase in behavior before onset of reward

variable-interval schedule

response is reinforced based on average amount of time elapsed; leads to slow but consistent responses due to unpredictable reinforcers

superstitious conditioning

form of operant conditioning in which a behavior is learned because it was coincidentally reinforced, but has no actual relationship with reinforcement; our brains actively try and find patterns to form predictions, even when such patterns do not actually exist

what does superstitious conditioning imply about learning

learning doesn’t reflect on true associations between behavior and consequences/stimuli, but rather it depends on associations made in the mind of the learner

cognitive revolution

as a result of superstitious conditioning, researchers refocused on uncovering underlying mental processes of behavior, rather than just solely focusing on what’s observable about behavior

latent learning

learning that occurs without an incentive or clear motivation to learn; our brains naturally map out our surroundings

cognitive maps

internal representations of complex spatial layouts

learning curve

slow process by which we acquire knowledge incrementally through trial and error

insight learning

form of learning that occurs without trial and error, and thus without clear reinforcement; we sometimes learn by developing a mental concept of how things work (assess possible solutions), and choose what’ll best work rather than brute-forcing a solution

observational learning

learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates behavior from a model; eliminates tedium and risk associated with operant and classical conditioning

imitation

purposeful copying of a behavior

social learning theory (SLT)

describes the process by which people’s cognitions, behaviors, and dispositions are acquired through observing and imitating others through 4 main processes (attention, retention, motor reproduction, and reinforcement)

attention (SLT)

first stage; the degree to which the learner focuses on model/teacher; influenced by learner’s admiration/respect for teacher, and significance of the teacher to learner

retention (SLT)

second stage; storing information in the mind so it can be recalled and used in the future, which is further aided by visual imagery (e.g. notes)

motor reproduction (SLT)

third stage; helps reinforce skills learned through physically imitating the actions of a model/teacher

reinforcement (SLT)

fourth stage; rewards (ex: praise) that increase the likelihood one will repeat and remember learned behaviors/skills

mirror neurons

located in the primary motor cortex; one group activates when performing an action, while the other activates while observing one perform an action, to support our ability to learn/understand through imitation

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

able to stimulate and/or disrupt areas in the brain temporarily

mirror neurons and empathetic experiences

also activate when observing one going through some sort of emotion (e.g. pain); helps us understand what others are thinking, their intentions, and feelings

culture

the many behaviors (e.g. eating preferences, social rules, knowledge, skills, etc.) that we share with a group of people, that are particularly beneficial in the way we live

cultural transmission

the transferring of skills/knowledge from generation to generation, or within a generation, via learning

vertical transmission

type of cultural transmission in which knowledge/skills are shared across generations (e.g. grandparents → parents → children)

horizontal transmission

type of cultural transmission within a generation (e.g. fashion standards among peers)

diffusion chain

process by which individuals learn a behavior by observing a model, then become the model from whom other individuals learn from, and so on; allows for cultural learning to be transmitted between different communities

cumulative cultural evolution

cultures evolve by continuously building on accumulated skills/knowledge of prior generations

dual inheritance/gene-culture coevolutionary theory

proposes that human cultural evolution was a driving force for our species’ genetic evolution, leading to cognitive and anatomical changes