Theories of crime (L2)

What is crime?

• An act that is illegal and can be punished by law

• Illegal actions as a whole

• Something disgraceful or immoral

How does crime vary over time and locations?

• Laws change over time → cocaine was legal remedy, now class A drug

• Killing illegal during peacetime, not killing was illegal during war

• Variation in definitions of sexual crime, e.g. age of consent

How many males have criminal record by age 40?

1/3

What are some biological explanations of crime?

• Physical characteristics

• Genetic predisposition

• Brain structure and chemistry

What is Phrenology?

Claimed a person's personality traits and mental abilities could be determined by measuring the shape and bumps of their skull

What is Atavism (Lombroso, 1876)?

• Certain individuals are evolutionary throwbacks, distinct physical traits

• Link between these individuals and criminality, identifiable by features

What are Sheldon (1949) somatotypes?

• 3 body types: Ectomorph, Endomorph, Mesomorph

• Mesomorph linked to criminal behaviour

What was found in study of somatotypes and offending (Glueck and Glueck,1956)?

57% offender sample mesomorphic, control group 19%

Which are some genetic predispositions suggested for criminality?

• Male

• Abnormal genes

• Inheritance → twin, family, adoption studies

Which gender has been associated with criminality (genetic predisposition)?

• Male → 76% convictions, 95% prisoners

• May be linked to hormones?

Which abnormal genes have been associated with criminality?

• XYY ‘Supermale’

• L variant of MAOA and violence (related to reduction of serotonin, warrior gene)

How have genetics been linked to families and criminality?

• Criminal behaviour tends to run in family

• 53% juveniles with convicted family member had conviction themselves

What are some issues with using family studies to investigate link between genetic predisposition and offending?

Often same environment → confounding variable

What have twin studies shown in relation to genetic predisposition and offending?

Meta analysis showed MZ twins have higher average concordance rate for offending than DZ twins → 52% vs 21%

What are some issues with using twin studies to investigate link between genetic predisposition and offending?

MZ twins often treated more similarly than DZ twins → environmental influence

What did Mednick et al (1984) find in an adoption study looking at genetic predisposition and adoptees?

• Sig result for biological parents → suggests genetics do play a part.

• Sons more likely to offend when biological parent also an offender

Which lobes of the brain are associated with criminal behaviour?

• Frontal → executive functioning, inhibition

• Temporal lobe → emotional regulation

What link has been found between the frontal lobe and crime?

• Phineas Gage

• Rate head injury higher in criminals

• War veterans with frontal lobe damage engaged in criminal activities

• Acquired paedophilia

• Less activity

• Not fully developed before 25 yrs → adolescent crime

Which area of the brain has been linked to acquired paedophilia?

Orbitofrontal tumour

Which area of the brain have violent offenders shown significantly less activity in?

Prefrontal lobe

Which biological factors have been linked to violence?

• Birth complications, e.g. lack of oxygen

• Smoking in pregnancy

• Foetal alcohol syndrome

• Environmental lead levels, e.g. pipes, petrol

• Seafood diet → Japan high fish intake, low homicide rate

• Adverse childhood experiences, disrupted brain development

Which neurotransmitters are associated with impulsive crime?

• Dopamine → too much

• Serotonin → too little

How is autonomic nervous system linked to criminal behaviour?

Slow ANS makes it less likely criminal behaviour will be inhibited and person may be unable to conform/learn from mistakes.

What has been found in relation to testosterone and aggression in adults?

• Weak and inconsistent association.

• Low 2D:4D digit ratio → theory neonatal levels of testosterone not current levels cause problems

• Neonatal androgens → link between low finger ratio and criminal behaviour

What are some sociological explanations for crime?

• Strain

• Social learning

• Self control

• Labelling

What is strain theory (Merton, 1938)?

• Attempts to explain why there is a concentration of crime in lower class, minority and urban areas.

• Believes cultural pressure to succeed and achieve (economically) → creates ‘strain’ for some disadvantaged groups and in order to succeed leads some individuals to engage in antisocial behaviour.

What 5 responses did Merton suggest in how people respond to strain?

1. Conformity → try to be successful within norms

2. Ritualisation → Ignore success and stick to norms

3. Innovation → use illegitimate methods to achieve success

4. Rebellion → rebel against standards and use own system

5. Retreatism → do not attempt to achieve success

Which responses to strain are associated with criminal behaviours?

Rebellion, innovation and retreatism

What criticisms of Merton’s strain theory are there?

• Weak/mixed empirical evidence, strain hard to measure

• Why do only some strained individuals resort to crime or delinquency

• Narrow in scope: hard to explain white collar crime, rape or hoolinganism