Study Guide Learning and Motivation 1-5

What is learning?

A relatively lasting change in behavior or the ability to behave that happens because of experience. Example: A student learns to drive after practicing.

What is classical conditioning?

Learning that happens when a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with another stimulus and begins to trigger a response. Example: A dog starts drooling when it hears a sound that has repeatedly been followed by food.

What is operant conditioning?

Learning in which consequences influence how likely a behavior is to happen again. Example: A student studies more often after receiving good grades for studying.

What is the main difference between classical and operant conditioning?

One involves learning an association between stimuli that produces a response, while the other involves how the consequences of a behavior affect future behavior. Example: Feeling hungry when hearing a dinner bell versus studying more after earning extra credit.

Who was John B. Watson, and what did he contribute to psychology?

He helped establish an approach that focused on observable behavior rather than trying to explain behavior through unobservable mental processes. He is also associated with the Little Albert experiment.

Who was B. F. Skinner, and what did he study?

He studied how consequences affect behavior. His work showed how rewards and other consequences can increase or decrease the likelihood of actions.

Who was Edward Tolman, and what did he contribute?

He studied learning that can occur without immediate rewards. His research helped show that animals can learn information about their surroundings even when they do not immediately demonstrate that learning.

Who was Albert Bandura, and what did he study?

He studied how people learn by observing others. His work showed that people can learn new behaviors without personally performing the behavior or receiving a reward themselves.

What is behaviorism?

An approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and how the environment influences it. Example: A researcher records how often a child raises a hand instead of guessing what the child is thinking.

Why is observable behavior important in behaviorism?

It can be seen, measured, and recorded, allowing researchers to study behavior more objectively. Example: Counting how many times a student leaves their seat during class.

What is observational learning?

Learning by watching another person and observing what happens to them. Example: A child learns to tie their shoes by watching a parent demonstrate.

Can learning happen without direct reinforcement?

Yes. Someone can learn by observing another person or by gaining information without immediately receiving a reward. Example: A student learns how to use a printer by watching a classmate, even before trying it themselves.

What is an independent variable (IV)?

The factor a researcher changes or compares to see whether it affects an outcome. Example: A researcher gives one group a new study method and another group the usual method.

What is a dependent variable (DV)?

The outcome that a researcher measures to determine whether it changes. Example: In a study about study methods, the students' test scores are measured.

In a study testing whether caffeine affects reaction time, what is the IV?

The amount of caffeine participants receive, because that is the factor being changed or compared.

In a study testing whether caffeine affects reaction time, what is the DV?

Participants' reaction times, because that is the outcome being measured.

What is an operational definition?

A clear, specific explanation of exactly how a variable or behavior will be measured. Example: Defining classroom participation as the number of times a student speaks during a 50-minute class.

Why are operational definitions important?

They make research procedures clear and help different researchers measure the same behavior consistently. Example: Everyone counts an interruption using the same rule.

What is reliability?

The consistency of a measurement or research result. Example: A scale gives nearly the same reading when the same object is weighed repeatedly under the same conditions.

What is validity?

The extent to which a measurement actually measures what it is supposed to measure. Example: A driving test that measures actual driving skills has greater validity for driving ability than a test about memorizing road-sign names alone.

What is the difference between reliability and validity?

One concerns consistency, while the other concerns accuracy in measuring the intended concept. Example: A scale that is always five pounds too high is consistent but not accurate.

What is frequency as a measure of behavior?

The number of times a behavior occurs. Example: A teacher records that a student asks five questions during class.

What is duration as a measure of behavior?

How long a behavior lasts. Example: Recording that a student spends 20 minutes reading.

What is latency as a measure of behavior?

The amount of time between a stimulus or instruction and the start of a behavior. Example: A teacher gives an instruction, and the researcher records how many seconds pass before the student begins.

What is descriptive research?

Research that observes and describes behavior without deliberately manipulating a variable to test its effect. Example: Watching how children share toys on a playground and recording what happens.

What is experimental research?

Research in which a researcher manipulates a variable under controlled conditions to investigate its effect on an outcome. Example: Giving different groups different study methods and comparing their test scores.

What is the difference between descriptive and experimental research?

One mainly describes what happens, while the other tests how changing a factor affects an outcome. Observing students studying is descriptive; assigning different study methods and comparing scores is experimental.

What is a single-subject research design?

A research approach that closely measures one person or a small number of individuals over time to examine changes in behavior.

What does the A phase represent in a single-subject design?

The baseline period, when behavior is measured before the intervention is introduced. Example: Recording how often a student interrupts before using a behavior plan.

What does the B phase represent in a single-subject design?

The intervention period, when a treatment or change is introduced and behavior continues to be measured.

What is an AB design?

A design that measures behavior during a baseline phase and then during an intervention phase. Example: Recording a student's interruptions before and after introducing a reward system.

What is an ABA design?

A design that measures behavior during baseline, introduces an intervention, and then removes the intervention to observe what happens. The phases are A, B, and A.

What is an ABAB design?

A design that measures baseline behavior, introduces an intervention, removes it, and then introduces it again. The phases are A, B, A, and B.

How are AB, ABA, and ABAB designs different?

They differ in how many times the researcher switches between baseline and intervention. AB has one intervention phase; ABA adds a return to baseline; ABAB adds a second intervention phase.

What is elicited behavior?

Behavior that is automatically triggered by a particular stimulus rather than deliberately chosen. Example: Blinking when something suddenly moves toward your eyes.

What is a reflex?

An automatic response to a particular stimulus. Example: Pulling your hand away after touching something hot.

What is habituation?

A decrease in responding after repeated exposure to the same harmless stimulus. Example: You stop noticing the sound of a clock ticking after hearing it for a while.

What is sensitization?

An increase in responsiveness after exposure to a stimulus, especially when the stimulus is intense or upsetting. Example: After being startled by a loud bang, you jump more strongly at other unexpected noises.

What is dishabituation?

The return of a response that had decreased through repeated exposure, often after a new or strong stimulus occurs. Example: You stop noticing a ticking clock, but a sudden loud noise makes you notice the ticking again.

What is the difference between habituation and sensitization?

One involves responding less to a repeated stimulus, while the other involves responding more strongly. Example: Becoming used to a fan's sound versus becoming extra alert to noises after a frightening event.

What is the difference between habituation and extinction?

One is a reduced response to a repeatedly presented stimulus, while the other occurs when a learned association is no longer reinforced by the expected outcome. Example: Getting used to a ticking clock versus a dog gradually stopping its learned response to a bell when the bell is repeatedly presented without food.

What is opponent-process theory?

An explanation of emotional reactions suggesting that an initial emotional response can be followed by an opposite response. Example: A frightening amusement-park ride may first cause fear and later produce relief or excitement.

What is the a-process?

The initial emotional response to an event. Example: Feeling an immediate rush of fear when a roller coaster suddenly drops.

What is the b-process?

The opposing emotional reaction that follows the initial response. Example: Feeling relief after the roller coaster drop has passed.

What is a neutral stimulus (NS)?

A stimulus that initially does not produce the specific learned response being studied. Example: A bell that does not initially cause a dog to salivate.

What is an unconditioned stimulus (US)?

A stimulus that naturally produces a response without prior learning. Example: Food naturally causes a hungry dog to salivate.

What is an unconditioned response (UR)?

A natural response to a stimulus that does not require learning. Example: A dog salivates when food is placed in front of it.

What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?

A stimulus that initially was neutral but, after being associated with another stimulus, produces a learned response. Example: A bell produces salivation after being repeatedly paired with food.

What is a conditioned response (CR)?

A learned response to a stimulus that acquired meaning through association. Example: A dog salivates when it hears the bell that has been paired with food.

What are the five components of classical conditioning?

The neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response. For example, a bell begins as neutral, food naturally causes salivation, and after repeated pairings the bell alone produces salivation.

What is appetitive conditioning?

Learning an association involving something desirable or rewarding. Example: A sound becomes associated with receiving a favorite snack.

What is aversive conditioning?

Learning an association involving something unpleasant or something a person wants to avoid. Example: A sound becomes associated with an unpleasant experience and later causes fear.

What is temporal contiguity?

The closeness in time between two stimuli. Example: A bell rings immediately before food arrives.

What is spatial contiguity?

The closeness in physical location between stimuli. Example: A particular object is repeatedly present near an event that produces a response.

What is contingency in classical conditioning?

The relationship in which one stimulus reliably signals that another stimulus is likely to occur. Example: A tone reliably occurs before food arrives.

Why does predictiveness matter in classical conditioning?

Learning is generally stronger when one stimulus provides useful information about the arrival of another stimulus. A signal that reliably predicts food is more informative than a sound that occurs randomly.

Why does the timing of stimuli matter in classical conditioning?

The timing can influence how easily an association is learned. A signal that occurs shortly before an important event often becomes a useful predictor of that event.

What is acquisition?

The stage in which a learned association develops or becomes stronger. Example: A dog begins salivating to a bell after the bell has been paired with food.

What is extinction?

A decrease in a learned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the event it previously predicted. Example: A dog gradually stops salivating to a bell when the bell no longer predicts food.

What is spontaneous recovery?

The return of a previously reduced conditioned response after a rest period. Example: A dog that stopped salivating to a bell shows salivation again when the bell is presented after a break.

What is the difference between acquisition and extinction?

One involves developing or strengthening a learned response, while the other involves a decrease in that response when the expected outcome no longer follows.

What is stimulus generalization?

Responding to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus. Example: A child frightened by one large dog becomes afraid of other large dogs.

What is stimulus discrimination?

Learning to respond differently to stimuli because only certain stimuli predict the important event. Example: A dog salivates to the sound that predicts food but not to other similar sounds.

What is the difference between generalization and discrimination?

One involves responding to similar stimuli, while the other involves learning to distinguish between stimuli. Example: Fearing many dogs versus fearing only dogs that resemble the one involved in a frightening experience.

What is higher-order conditioning?

Learning in which a previously conditioned stimulus is used to give a new stimulus conditioned properties. Example: A dog learns that a bell predicts food. Later, a light is paired with the bell, and the light eventually produces a learned response.

How can a new stimulus acquire conditioned properties?

It can be repeatedly associated with a stimulus that already predicts an important event. Example: A light becomes associated with a bell that already predicts food.

What is overshadowing?

When two stimuli are presented together, the more noticeable or stronger stimulus gains more control over the learned response, while the less noticeable stimulus gains less control. Example: A loud tone and a dim light are paired with food, but the dog mainly learns about the tone.

What is blocking?

When an existing learned predictor prevents or reduces learning about a new stimulus presented alongside it. Example: A dog already knows that a bell predicts food. If a light is then added alongside the bell before food, the dog may learn little about the light.

What is the difference between blocking and overshadowing?

One happens because an already learned predictor reduces learning about a new stimulus; the other happens when one stimulus in a combination attracts more learning than another. Example: An established bell blocks learning about a new light, while a loud tone overshadows a dim light when both are introduced together.

What is latent inhibition?

Slower conditioning that can happen when a person or animal has previously encountered a stimulus without anything important happening. Example: A tone that has been heard many times without consequence may take longer to become a signal for food.

Why can prior exposure slow conditioning?

The stimulus may already seem unimportant because it has repeatedly occurred without predicting a meaningful event. As a result, it can take longer to learn that it now predicts something important.

In a real-life scenario, how can you identify acquisition?

Look for a learned response that develops after repeated pairings. Example: A student begins feeling hungry when a familiar lunch bell rings because it has repeatedly signaled lunchtime.

In a real-life scenario, how can you identify extinction?

Look for a learned response that decreases after the expected event stops following the signal. Example: A dog gradually stops running to the kitchen when a sound no longer means that food is coming.

In a real-life scenario, how can you identify stimulus generalization?

Look for the same learned response occurring to something similar to the original signal. Example: A person who was frightened by one barking dog becomes afraid of other barking dogs.

In a real-life scenario, how can you identify stimulus discrimination?

Look for someone learning that one signal predicts an event but similar signals do not. Example: A dog responds to its specific food bell but ignores other household sounds.

What should you practice from the taco truck and Escape from Blackwood Manor activities?

Practice identifying the conditioning principle illustrated in each scenario, including acquisition, extinction, generalization, discrimination, blocking, overshadowing, and other concepts listed in the study guide. The exact scenarios are not included in the study guide itself, so use your class activity notes for those specific examples.

What is the basic idea of the Rescorla-Wagner theory?

Learning depends partly on how surprising an outcome is compared with what was expected. A stimulus tends to gain more associative strength when the outcome is unexpected than when it is already well predicted.

What is prediction or expectancy in classical conditioning?

The expectation that a stimulus will be followed by a particular event. Example: A dog expects food when it hears a bell that has reliably predicted food.

How does an unexpected outcome affect learning?

An unexpected outcome can lead to stronger changes in what is learned because the event provides new information. Example: A tone that suddenly predicts food may be learned more quickly than a tone that adds no new information.

How can classical conditioning contribute to a learned fear?

A previously neutral stimulus can become associated with a frightening experience and later trigger fear by itself. Example: After a painful medical procedure, a person may feel anxious when entering the clinic.

What is a phobia?

A strong, persistent fear of a particular object or situation that can lead someone to avoid it. Example: A person experiences intense fear when near spiders.

How can stimulus generalization contribute to a phobia?

Fear can spread from the original frightening stimulus to similar objects or situations. Example: After being bitten by one dog, a person becomes afraid of many dogs.

What was the purpose of the Little Albert experiment?

Researchers studied whether a fear response could be learned by associating a previously neutral stimulus with an unpleasant or frightening event.

What happened in the Little Albert experiment?

A young child was exposed to a white rat. Researchers paired the rat with a loud, frightening noise. After repeated pairings, the child showed fear toward the rat.

What did the Little Albert experiment demonstrate?

It provided an example of how a fear response could be learned through associations and could extend to similar stimuli.

What were the ethical concerns about the Little Albert experiment?

The experiment deliberately caused fear in a young child, raised concerns about informed consent and protection from harm, and did not adequately resolve the child's learned fear.

What is counterconditioning?

A process of replacing an unwanted learned response with a different, more desirable response by pairing the stimulus with a new experience. Example: Pairing a feared dog with calm, positive experiences to help reduce fear.

What is systematic desensitization?

A treatment approach that gradually exposes someone to a feared stimulus while teaching relaxation or other ways to manage anxiety. Example: A person with a fear of flying first imagines an airport, then visits one, and eventually works toward flying while practicing relaxation.

What is flooding?

An approach that involves prolonged exposure to a feared stimulus or situation at a high level rather than progressing through small steps. Example: Under appropriate professional guidance, a person confronts a feared situation directly for an extended period.

What is the difference between systematic desensitization and flooding?

One builds exposure gradually while using relaxation or coping skills; the other involves more immediate, intensive exposure to the feared situation.

What is the difference between counterconditioning and systematic desensitization?

One focuses broadly on replacing an unwanted response with a more desirable one; the other uses a structured, gradual approach to fear-related exposure paired with relaxation or coping skills.

How can classical conditioning be applied to phobia treatment?

Treatment can help a person develop new responses to a previously feared stimulus through gradual exposure and new associations. Example: A person gradually encounters a feared dog in safe, controlled situations while learning to remain calm.

What are conditioned drug responses?

Learned bodily or behavioral reactions that develop when environmental cues become associated with taking a drug. Example: A person may begin experiencing familiar bodily changes when returning to the same place where they regularly used a drug.

How can conditioned drug responses relate to drug tolerance?

Environmental cues associated with drug use may trigger compensatory responses that help the body prepare for the drug. These learned responses can contribute to differences in how the body reacts in familiar versus unfamiliar settings.

Why can a familiar drug-taking environment affect the body's response?

Cues associated with previous drug use may trigger learned bodily responses before the drug is taken. In a new environment, those cues may be absent, potentially changing the body's response and increasing overdose risk.

What is the main difference between a conditioned fear and a natural fear response?

A conditioned fear is learned through association, while a natural response can occur without that specific learning history. Example: Fear that develops after a dog bite versus automatically blinking when an object suddenly approaches your eyes.

A student receives praise each time they complete their homework, so they begin completing it more often. What type of learning is this?

Learning through consequences, because praise makes the behavior more likely to happen again.

A dog naturally salivates when food is placed in front of it. Which two components are involved?

The food is the stimulus that naturally produces the response, and salivation is the automatic response to that stimulus.

A researcher changes the amount of sleep participants get and measures their memory scores. What are the IV and DV?

The amount of sleep is the factor being changed, and the memory scores are the measured outcome.

A researcher counts how many times a child leaves their seat. What measurement is being used?

The number of times the behavior occurs is being measured.