Social Psychology TEST 2

The Self; Cognitive Dissonance and Self-Esteem Protection; Attitude and Attitude Change

self-concept

the overall set of belief that people hold about their personal attributes.

child’s self-concept

tends to be concrete, relying on references to characteristics such as age, sex, neighborhood, and hobbies

maturing self-concept

places less emphasis on physical characteristics and more emphasis on psychological states and how other people judge us

The “True Self”

changes in a person’s morality (e.g. cruelty to others) are perceived to alter the “true self” more than other changes (such as becoming forgetful, needing eyeglasses, or changing musical preferences).

an fMRI study found that the _______________ was preferentially recruited when participants made judgements related to theselves, compared to judgements about others (e.g. the US president) or font case

medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC)

a cross-cultural fMRI study demonstrated that ________ participants activated the brain’s ______________similarly when they thought about themselves and when they thought about their mother, whereas ________ participants did not show this same pattern

Chinese; medial prefrontal cortex; Western

Independent View of the Self

Defines the self through one’s own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions, rather than those of other people.

Values independence and uniqueness and is commonly held in many Western cultures

Independent View of the Self

Defines the self through relationships to other people and recognizes that others’ thoughts, feelings, and actions affect one’s own behavior

Values connectedness and interdependence, frowns on uniqueness, and is held in many Asian and non-Western cultures

Self-Knowledge

the way we understand who we are and organize this info

Self-Control

the way we make plans and execute decisions and the ability to subdue immediate desires to achieve long-term goals

impression management

the way we present ourselves to others and get them to see us as we want to be seen

self-esteem

the way we maintain positive views of ourselves and our overall evaluation of self-worth. protects against mortality anxiety and fuels perseverance

self-awareness theory

the idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and values

self-awareness and morality study

participants were less likely to cheat on a timed test when seated in front of a mirror (self-aware condition) compared to when seated next to a mirror

Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do study

tracked the daily moods over 5 weeks, college students were overall inaccurate in estimating how variables like weather, workload, and sleep predicted their moods.

affective forecasting

the tendency to overestimate the enduring impact of future events (ex. sports victories, romantic breakups, personal insults)

studies have shown discrepancies in how people predict their happiness after events compared to lottery winners and accident victims

self-perception

theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs. This occurs only when we are not sure how we feel and must judge whether our behavior reflects how we feel or is the result of the situation.

two factor theory of emotion

Schachter proposed that the experience of emotion is similar to other types of self-perception, where we infer our emotions by observing our behavior.

emotions experienced in two step process:

• a. experience phsyiological arousal

• b. seek an appropriate explanation for it

Schachter study

participants were injected with epinephrine or a placebo, and then exposed to a confederate expressing anger or euphoria. Showed that emotions are somewhat arbitrary and depend on our explanations for arousal

Misattribution of Arousal

making mistaken inferences about what is causing us to feel the way we do. arousal from one source (like exercise or a fright) can enhance the intensity of how a person interprets other feelings, such as attraction.

Bridge study

male hikers who talked to a female confederate right after crossing a scary bridge were more likely to call her later compared to those who had rested after crossing.

intrinsic motivation

Engaging in an activity because of enjoyment and interest, not external rewards or pressures.

extrinsic motivation

Engaging in an activity because of external reasons, not because of enjoyment and interest.

over justification effect

the tendency of people to view their behavior as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by intrinsic reasons

preserving intrinsic interest

Rewards will undermine interest only if interest was initially high. (ex. task-contingent rewards and performance-contingent rewards)

task-contingent rewards

Given for performing a task regardless of how well it is done.

performance-contingent rewards

Based on how well a task is performed and are less damaging to intrinsic interest, though they have a potential backfiring effect.

fixed mindset

The idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change. Individuals with a fixed mindset are more likely to give up and do poorly on subsequent tasks after failure.

growth mindset

The idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow.

growth mindset study

participants praised for effort (growth mindset) rather than intelligence (fixed mindset) worked harder, longer, and enjoyed a second, challenging test more after experiencing failure.

social comparison theory

The idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people. The theory centers on when you engage in social comparison and with whom you choose to compare yourself.

upward social comparison

Comparing to people who are better on a particular trait to know the furthest level to which we can aspire

downward social comparison

Comparing to people who are worse on a trait to feel better about ourselves (or comparing against past selves)

similar background comparison

Comparing to people with similar backgrounds to acquire accurate self-knowledge

ineffective strategies for self control

Simply trying not to think about temptations, or solely focusing on the long-term goal and its importance.

effective strategies for self control

Using "implementation intentions" (specific plans regarding where, when, and how to fulfill a goal and avoid temptations), arranging the environment, and maintaining the belief that willpower is unlimited.

self handicapping

Creating obstacles and excuses for ourselves so that if we do poorly on a task, we can avoid blaming ourselves.

2 types of self-handicapping

behavioral (acting in ways that reduce the likelihood of success) and reported (devising ready-made excuses rather than creating actual obstacles)

behavioral self-handicapping study

a significant percentage of participants chose a drug that would hinder their intellectual performance when placed in a noncontingent condition. the study showed that men were the only ones to use the drug.

North American Context for positive self-views

Focuses on maintaining high self-esteem and a promotion focus. For example, Canadian participants spent more time on a creativity task when they succeeded.

East Asian context for positive self views

Focuses on "Face" (the amount of social value others give you if you live up to positional standards), which is tied to status and more easily lost than gained. Involves a prevention focus. Japanese participants spent more time on a creativity task when they failed.

Cognitive dissonance

the discomfort that people feel when two cognitions (beliefs, attitudes) conflict, or when they behave in ways that are inconsistent with their conception of themselves. (ex. Heaven’s Gate cult maintained their self-destructive plan despite clear evidence contradicting their beliefs)

3 ways to reduce dissonance

a. change behavior to align with cognition

b. justify behavior by changing one of the dissonant cognitions

c. justify behavior by adding new cognitions

post decision dissonance

comes after making a decision; typically reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devaluing rejected alternatives

Consumer Testing study

Participants rated appliances about same when asked. Then asked to choose an appliance, then asked to come back and rate both again. they rated the one they chose higher and non-chosen appliance lower after making their decision despite rating them the same before. this was to justify their choice/purchase

permanence and importance

Participants rated a chosen appliance higher and non-chosen appliance lower after making their decision.

photography class study

Participants were either asked to pick a photo of themselves taken and had to make a decision then. Those who didn’t have a choice to change the pic liked their chosen photo more over time. Other participants were given the option to choose a photo but also had the option to change decision later. These participants liked their choice of photo less over time.

lowballing

A salesperson induces a customer to agree to purchase a product at a low cost, later claims it was an error, and raises the price. Customers frequently still agree due to implied commitment, anticipation, and marginal price differences.

justification of effort

The tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain.

screening study

Participants who underwent a severe, unpleasant screening initiation to join a discussion group reported liking the dull discussion significantly more than those with mild or no initiation due to the effort needed to get in.

external justification

A reason or explanation for dissonant personal behavior that resides outside the individual (e.g., receiving a large reward or avoiding severe punishment).

internal justification

The reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself (e.g., one's attitude or behavior)

counterattitudinal advocacy

Stating an opinion or attitude that runs counter to one's private belief or attitude

Festinger and Carlsmith study

The 20$ dollar group overplayed the lie that the study was interesting making less people believe it. But the people with $1 people lied normally and more people believed them. the people paid 20$ felt more guilty and liked the study less since they felt like they had to more go against their beliefs. The 1$ people felt less guilty since they didn’t have to lie as intensely and rated the study better overall. The 20$ felt more like bribe money and made for a greater counter attitudinal advocacy.

the ben franklin effect

Doing a favor for a disliked person (and them treating you better) creates dissonance between behavior and attitude, prompting the individual to like the person more.

Justifying cruelty

In "first impression" studies, participants lowered their ratings of a target person after being forced or led to insult them.

the reasoning for the decision to cheat

Viewing oneself as honest conflicts with cheating. Dissonance is reduced by adopting an attitude that "it's not a big deal," leading to less ethical future behavior.

the reasoning for the decision to not cheat

Post-decision dissonance ("I could have had a better grade") is reduced by convincing oneself that cheating is extremely immoral, solidifying a stricter ethical stance

the language impact in relation to cheating

Referencing identity ("Don't be a cheater") reduces cheating more effectively than referencing action ("Don't cheat")

how punishment relates to severe threats

it provides sufficient external justification; behavior stops, but underlying attitude remains unchanged

how punishment relates to mild threats

Creates insufficient external justification, forcing individuals to create internal justification and change their underlying attitudes.

forbidden toy study

Children threatened with severe punishment still found the toy attractive. Children threatened with mild punishment devalued the toy via internal self-persuasion

CD ranking studies

 American and Japanese participants showed different dissonance patterns depending on whether choices were framed for themselves or framed around social evaluation ("average college student")

Self-affirmation theory

People can reduce threats to self-esteem by affirming themselves in areas unrelated to the threat source.

lab coat study (enclothed cognition)

Science majors wearing white lab coats did better on Stroop test showing clothing’s symbolic meaning and that physical experience can affect cognition

Value affirmation:

Brief writing exercises on core values mitigate threats, reducing academic anxiety and improving performance in minority students.

self-evaluation maintenance theory

focuses on dissonance experienced when someone close outperforms us in a domain central to our self-esteem

dissonance triggered → close person outperforms you in a highly relevant area

• strategy 1: distance yourself from the person

• strategy 2: reduce the relvance of the task to your self-esteem

• strategy 3: improve you performance relative to theirs

word game study

Participants gave harder clues to friends than strangers when the task was framed as highly relevant to intelligence. this was to avoid seeming too helpful or to test their abilities more rigorously

3 types of attitudes

cognitive, affective, and behavioral

cognitively based attitudes

Based primarily on beliefs about property attributes (e.g., evaluating a car on safety metrics or fuel efficiency)

affectively based attitudes

Based on feelings and values (e.g., voting based on gut feelings or aesthetic appreciation). Linked to values, classical/operant conditioning, and sensory reactions; non-rational.

behaviorally based attitudes

Inferred from observations of one's own behavior when initial attitudes are weak or ambiguous (Self-Perception Theory)

explicit vs. implicit attitudes

explicit: conscious and easy to report; recent experiences/deliberate thought; self-report surveys; endorsing equality explicity

implicit: involuntary, uncontrollable, often unconscious; rooted in childhood or cultural stereotypes; Implicit Association Test (IAT); resume callbacks favoring White vs. African American names

LaPiere Study

Showed discrepancy between reported attitudes (90% stating they would refuse service to Chinese guests) and actual behavior (only 1 of 251 establishments actually refused service).

sleeper effect

Over time, individuals dissociate message content from low-credibility sources, increasing message impact later

identifiable victim effect

People are moved more by vivid individual stories than abstract stats

central route

Occurs when people have both the motivation and ability to process facts. Driven by personal relevance.

peripheral route

Occurs when people are distracted or unmotivated; swayed by surface cues (e.g., speaker status or length of speech)

fear arousing communication: moderate fear + actionable instructions

Highly effective (e.g., showing a film on lung cancer combined with a quit-smoking guide).

fear arousing communication: overwhelming fear

Fails because people become defensive, deny risk, and process information irrationally.

“how do I feel about it?” Heuristic

Moods are used as fast decision shortcuts, often leading to misattribution of emotions.

Matching Principle

• fight cognitive attitudes with rational arguments (utilitarian products like appliances).

• fight affective attitudes with emotional appeals (social identity products like perfume)

advertising effectiveness

Split-cable tests confirm ads work, particularly for new products. Affective ads pair low-relevance products with positive emotional associations.

subliminal advertising

No evidence supports that subliminal messages in everyday media alter behavior. Controlled lab settings show minimal short-term effects only under strict conditions

attitude inoculation

Exposing individuals to small doses of opposing arguments beforehand builds resistance to later persuasion

peer pressure

Resisted effectively by practicing responses to emotional appeals (role-playing).

reactance theory

Strong prohibitions ("Do not write on walls under any circumstances") backfire by threatening freedom, increasing the forbidden behavior compared to mild signs.

88th card!!!!!

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