The Chemicals of Life Review

Flashcards reviewing biochemistry concepts covering functional groups, dehydration synthesis, hydrolysis, and carbohydrate structures (monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides).

What are the four main groups of the chemicals of life listed in the lecture?

Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids, and Water

What is organic chemistry defined as in the notes?

The study of carbon compounds

How are most carbon-based organic compounds classified?

As hydrocarbons

What is a functional group?

The site of chemical reactions and chemical reactivity in a molecule, featuring carbon with H, O, S, and P attachments

What is the chemical formula and biomolecule location of the hydroxyl group?

Chemical formula is -OH; found in alcohols (e.g., ethanol)

What is the chemical formula and biomolecule location of the carboxyl group?

Chemical formula is -COOH; found in acids (e.g., vinegar)

What is the chemical formula and biomolecule location of the amino group?

Chemical formula is $\text{-NH}_2$; found in bases (e.g., ammonia)

What is the chemical formula and biomolecule location of the sulfhydryl group?

Chemical formula is -SH; found in rubber

What is the chemical formula and biomolecule location of the phosphate group?

Chemical formula is $\text{-PO}_4$; found in ATP

What are the two forms of the carbonyl group and where are they found?

-COH found in aldehydes (e.g., formaldehyde) and -CO found in ketones (e.g., acetone)

What is dehydration synthesis (condensation reaction)?

An anabolic reaction that absorbs energy in which two subunits link together through the removal of a water molecule

What is a hydrolysis reaction?

A catabolic reaction that releases energy in which two subunits break apart through the addition of a water molecule

What word root and suffix are commonly used for names of carbohydrates?

The word root saccharide or the suffix -ose

What are three primary uses of carbohydrates in living organisms?

Main source of short-term energy, building material (e.g., exoskeleton), and cell surface recognition molecules

What is the general chemical formula for carbohydrates?

$\text{(CH}_2\text{O)}_n$, where $n$ is the number of carbon atoms

What functional groups are contained in simple sugars?

Carbonyl and hydroxyl groups

What does the word monosaccharide literal derivation mean?

Mono means "one" and saccharan means "sugar"

How do monosaccharides form ring structures in aqueous solutions?

The aldehyde and ketone groups react with hydroxyl (-OH) groups belonging to the same molecule

What are the three major monosaccharides mentioned, and how are they mainly produced?

Glucose, galactose, and fructose; they are mainly produced by digestion of complex carbohydrates

How do $\alpha$ (alpha) glucose and $\beta$ (beta) glucose differ in ring form?

In $\alpha$-glucose the -OH group at C1 is below the C, whereas in $\beta$-glucose the -OH group at C1 is above the C

What is the structural difference between glucose and galactose at C4?

In glucose the -OH group on C4 points down, while in galactose the -OH group on C4 points up

How do glucose and fructose differ when forming ring structures in water?

Glucose forms a 6-sided ring by reaction with the aldehyde at C1, while fructose forms a 5-sided ring by reaction with the ketone at C2

What is an oligosaccharide and how are its sugar units linked?

A compound containing 2-3 monosaccharides linked by glycosidic (ether) linkages formed by dehydration synthesis and/or condensation reactions

What disaccharide is produced by the dehydration synthesis of two glucose molecules?

Maltose

Which monosaccharide components form sucrose, lactose, and maltose?

Sucrose = glucose + fructose; Lactose = glucose + galactose; Maltose = glucose + glucose

According to the disaccharide overview table, what monomers, linkages, and sources correspond to maltose, sucrose, lactose, and cellobiose?

Maltose: $\alpha$ Glucose + $\alpha$ Glucose ($\alpha\text{ 1-4}$, Starch); Sucrose: Glucose + Fructose ($\alpha\text{ 1-2}$, Cane, Maple, Beet, Table Sugars); Lactose: Glucose + Galactose ($\alpha\text{ 1-4}$, Milk); Cellobiose: $\beta$ Glucose + $\beta$ Glucose ($\beta\text{ 1-4}$, Cellulose)

What are two storage polysaccharides and two structural polysaccharides?

Storage polysaccharides: Starch and Glycogen; Structural polysaccharides: Cellulose and Chitin

What are the two forms of starch and how do they differ in structure and linkages?

Amylose is a straight chain of $\alpha$-glucose with only $\alpha\text{ 1-4}$ glycosidic bonds; Amylopectin is a branched chain of $\alpha$-glucose with both $\alpha\text{ 1-4}$ and $\alpha\text{ 1-6}$ glycosidic bonds

How is starch hydrolyzed in the body and what enzyme and product are involved?

Starch is broken down by the enzyme amylase through hydrolysis of the glycosidic bond to produce maltose

What are the structural features of cellulose?

It is a straight chain composed of $\beta$-glucose with alternating/inverted orientations and $\beta\text{ 1-4}$ glycosidic linkages

What is glycogen and where is it found?

It is a very highly branched polysaccharide that serves as the principal storage form of glucose in animal and human cells

What unique element does chitin contain and what are its uses?

Chitin contains a nitrogen (N) group (N-acetyl group); it forms the hard exoskeleton of crustaceans and is used in contact lenses and stitches

Is dehydration synthesis anabolic or catabolic?

Anabolic

Is hydration synthesis anabolic or catabolic?

Catabolic

How are oligosaccharides linked?

By glycosidic (ether) linkages

What is another name for a glycosidic bond?

Ether link

What is a glycosidic bond?

A covalent chemical bond that joins a carbohydrate (sugar) molecule to another group, which can be either carbohydrates or a non-sugar molecule.

Differentiate between the glycosidic linkages of maltose and sucrose.

Maltose has a 1-4 glycosidic linkage while sucrose has a 1-2 glycosidic linkage.

What is glycogen?

Glycogen is a multi-branched polysaccharide of glucose that serves as the principal (short-term) storage form of glucose in animal and human cells.

What are fatty acids?

Fatty acids are chains of usually 4 to 24 carbon atoms with a carboxyl group on one end and a methyl group on the other.

What are triglycerides?

Lipid composed of one glycerol and three fatty acids.

What are the properties of amino acids as they relate to polar, non-polar or charged.

Non-polar: They are hydrophobic, they are composed of mainly carbon and hydrogen, and they sit on the inside of proteins away from watery cells.

Polar: They are hydrophilic, they contain oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur that form hydrogen bonds, and they sit on the outside of proteins touching the watery cell fluid.

Charged: They form ionic bonds and interact heavily with water and opposite charges, they stay on the outer surface of proteins.

Where are nucleic acids found?

DNA, RNA, ATP and nucleotide coenzymes

What is the DNA molecule made up of?

Deoxyribose sugars, phosphates, and nitrogenous bases.

What is ATP made up of?

Adenine, ribose and three phosphate groups.