Secularisation Against

What does Davie mean by 'believing without belonging'?

People retain religious beliefs without belonging to religious institutions or regularly attending services. This suggests religion may be privatised rather than disappearing.

What does Davie mean by the shift from obligation to consumption?

Religious participation has become a matter of personal choice rather than an inherited social obligation. Individuals choose whether and how to practise religion.

What is vicarious religion, according to Davie?

An active religious minority practises on behalf of a less active majority. Churches act as a 'Spiritual Health Service' by providing rites of passage and marking national events.

How does Davie illustrate vicarious religion?

Following Princess Diana's death in 1997, churches provided spaces for public mourning and remembrance, even for people who rarely attended services.

What does Davie mean by 'multiple modernities'?

Modernisation affects societies differently, so it does not produce the same level of secularisation everywhere. For example, church attendance has historically been higher in the USA than in Britain.

What are the main criticisms of Davie's theory?

Voas and Crockett argue that religious belief and belonging decline together. Bruce argues that non-attendance often reflects weakening belief. Abby Day argues that identifying as Christian can express cultural identity rather than genuine religious belief.

How does Hervieu-Léger explain the individualisation of religion?

Cultural amnesia, caused by declining transmission of religious traditions between generations, weakens inherited religion. Individuals increasingly construct their own beliefs through personal choice.

What are pilgrims and converts, according to Hervieu-Léger?

Pilgrims pursue individual spiritual journeys, while converts actively join or adopt a religious tradition, often becoming part of a strong religious community.

How does Lyon explain religion in postmodern society?

Globalisation, media and consumerism transform religion. Religious authority becomes less institutionalised, and individuals select beliefs and practices like consumers.

What is re-enchantment, according to Lyon?

The return or growth of interest in spiritual and supernatural experiences in a society that Weber argued was becoming disenchanted through rationalisation.

What is the difference between religion online and online religion, according to Helland?

Religion online provides information about established religions through organisational websites. Online religion involves participation in religious activities and communities online, potentially with less centralised authority.

How does Hoover explain the relationship between online religion and traditional religion?

Online religious activity often supplements rather than replaces participation in established religious organisations.

What did Heelas and Woodhead find in the Kendal Project?

In 2000, 7.9% attended traditional churches, compared with 1.6% participating in the holistic milieu. Traditional church participation was declining, while holistic spirituality was growing.

What is the 'subjective turn', according to Heelas and Woodhead?

A shift from external religious authority, duty and tradition towards personal experience, individual choice and the inner self.

Why does Bruce argue that the New Age movement is weak?

It attracts relatively few people, has weak commitment, lacks central authority and shared beliefs, and struggles to transmit beliefs to the next generation or mobilise large-scale participation.

What is religious market theory, according to Stark and Bainbridge?

People have a continuing demand for religion because it provides rewards and compensators for rewards that cannot be obtained immediately. Religious organisations compete to attract followers.

What are rewards and compensators in Stark and Bainbridge's theory?

Rewards are desired outcomes, such as meaning or community. Compensators are beliefs or explanations that substitute for rewards that are unavailable or impossible to obtain immediately, such as promises of an afterlife.

How does religious market theory explain religious decline and revival?

Religious organisations can decline when they fail to meet people's demands, while new movements and organisational renewal can attract followers and stimulate religious participation.

Why does religious market theory predict that religious competition can increase participation?

Competition encourages religious organisations to offer appealing beliefs and services. Where several organisations compete, they may attract more committed followers than a dominant religious monopoly.

How does religious market theory explain differences between the USA and Europe?

Stark and Bainbridge argue that the USA's greater religious competition encourages participation, whereas religious monopolies and weaker competition in parts of Europe can contribute to decline.

What evidence is used to support the supply-led approach to religion?

Televangelism, studied by Hadden and Shupe; the growth of Asian religions through immigration, discussed by Finke; and the expansion of religious organisations such as megachurches are used to illustrate how religious provision can affect participation.

What are the main criticisms of religious market theory?

Bruce argues that religious diversity does not necessarily increase participation and that the theory misrepresents secularisation. Norris and Inglehart find that high religious participation can exist in relatively monopolistic societies. Beckford criticises the theory for underestimating the social context of religion.

What is existential security theory, according to Norris and Inglehart?

People in societies with greater poverty, insecurity and vulnerability tend to be more religious, while people in wealthier, more secure societies tend to be less religious.

Why does existential security theory predict that the world may become more religious overall?

Religious populations tend to have higher birth rates, and many populations are growing in less economically secure societies. Consequently, the global proportion of religious people may remain high or increase even as some wealthy societies secularise.

How does existential security theory explain the difference between the USA and Europe?

Norris and Inglehart argue that greater inequality and weaker welfare protection in the USA create more insecurity than in many European societies, helping explain higher religious participation.

How do Gill and Lundegaarde support existential security theory?

Their research links higher public welfare spending with lower levels of religious participation, supporting the argument that greater material security reduces the demand for religion.

What is the overall debate between secularisation theory and its critics?

Secularisation theorists argue that religion is losing social significance, while critics argue that religion is changing form, becoming more individualised or remaining strong in particular societies. Declining traditional participation does not necessarily mean all religious belief is disappearing.